LiPPiNCOTT's  FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  PH.D.  (CORNELL). 

•  PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

A  COMPLETE  TEXT 

DEALING  WITH  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICES 
INVOLVED  IN  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF   POULTRY 

BY 
HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  B.S. 

POULTRY    HUSBANDMAN   OF   THE   NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT   STATION;    ASSIST- 
ANT  PROFESSOR   OF    POULTRY   AND  DAIRY   HUSBANDRY,  NEW  JERSEY  COLLEGE   OF 
AGRICULTURE    (RUTGERS);     FORMERLY    PROFESSOR    OF    AGRICULTURE 
OF  THE   BARON  DE  HIRSCH   AGRICULTURAL   SCHOOL;    MEMBER 
INTERNATIONAL    ASSOCIATION    OF   POULTRY    INSTRUC- 
TORS AND   INVESTIGATORS;    LIFE  MEMBER 

AMERICAN    POULTRY    ASSOCIATION. 

329  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 

"  If  vain  our  toil, 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

POPE — Essa$  on  Man. 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT.  1913 

3Y  J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


Electrotyped  and  printed  by 
B.  Lippincott  Company.  Philadelphia,  U.S.A. 


DEDICATION. 

TO  ALL  STUDENTS  AND  LOVERS  OF  POULTRY 
THIS  BOOK  IS  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED. 
MAY  IT  BE  TO  THEM  A  STEPPING  STONE 
IN  THIS  GREAT  AND  GROWING  INDUSTRY. 


284688 


PREFACE. 

THE  exceedingly  large  and  ever-increasing  demand  for  poultry 
and  poultry  products,  at  home  and  for  export,  has  caused  the 
poultry  business  to  become  so  profitable,  when  conducted  upon  a 
scientific  basis,  that  no  breeder  can  afford  to  }vack  th^ latest  knowl- 
edge of  best  methods  in  all  its  branches. 

A  number  of  poultry  books  have  appeared  [during  the  past  few 
years  in  response  to  an  insistent  demand,  some  dealing  with  special 
branches,  others  covering  the  entire  subject  in  a  general  way.  But 
the  great  need  in  poultry  literature  is  for  a  work  which  covers  the 
subject  in  a  thoroughly  scientific  yet  practical  manner,  treating 
each  branch  in  sufficient  detail  to  give  entire  clarity,  and  giving 
to  the  reader  the  results  of  research  at  the  various  experiment 
stations  and  the  methods  that  are  most  successful  in  present-day 
practice. 

Such  a  book  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author.  In  its  prepara- 
tion there  has  been  an  earnest  effort  to  help  build  the  foundation 
for  a  systematic,  scientific,  and  greater  poultry  industry. 

The  work  contains  in  an  abbreviated  form  the  observations, 
practices,  and  experience  of  the  author  while  engaged  in  various 
poultry  enterprises  as  practical  poultryman,  as  student,  and  as 
teacher. 

Of  all  live-stock,  the  poultry  flock  is  most  often  misunderstood 
and  poorly  cared  for.  In  recent  years  much  attention  has  been 
given  to  a  special  study  of  the  needs  of  poultry,  in  order  to  secure 
reliable  data  on  the  subject.  It  is  largely  due  to  this  awakening 
that  the  poultry  industry  of  America  is  bounding  ahead  in  such 
rapid  strides.  Remember  that  in  the  report  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  for  1905,  the  total  value  of  poultry  products  in  the 
United  States  was  estimated  at  five  hundred  million  dollars.  In 
1907  it  had  risen  to  over  six  hundred  million  dollars,  and  in  1910 
it  was  equal  to  cotton  and  was  next  to  corn,  which  is  the  leading 
agricultural  product.  This  rapid  increase  in  production,  accom- 
panied by  a  more  rapidly  increasing  demand  for  home  consumption 
and  export,  necessitates  a  better  knowledge  of  requirements  under- 
lying production  and  marketing. 

With  these  conditions  in  mind,  the  text  has  been  written  to  aid 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

all  those  interested  in  every  phase  of  the  industry.  The  book 
offers,  to  the  student  and  teacher  of  poultry  husbandry,  a  complete, 
concise,  systematic  course  of  lessons,  commencing  with  a  brief 
introduction  outlining  methods  of  teaching  poultry  husbandry. 
The  main  text  opens  with  a  discussion  of  poultry  farming,  its 
opportunities  and  requirements,  the  types  and  systems,  methods 
of  starting  in  the  business,  and  an  analysis  of  foreign  poultry  con- 
ditions. The  breeds  of  poultry  are  classified  and  their  uses  given ; 
methods  of  management  are  recommended,  including  housing, 
feeding,,  breeding,  and  all  phases  of  hatching  and  rearing. 

Every  phase  of  marketing  is  analyzed  and  improved  methods 
are  recommended.  Suggestions  are  given  on  the  subjects  of  exhib- 
iting, judging,  advertising,  and  the  keeping  of  records.  In  dis- 
cussing methods  of  management  the  principles  underlying  the 
operations  are  first  given;  this  is  followed  with  a  few  of  the  most 
successful  practices.  Illustrations  are  freely  but  carefully  used  to 
bring  out  important  features. 

In  the  hands  of  the  commercial  poultryman  the  book  affords  a 
large  field  for  study,  because  it  points  out  the  practices  which 
prove  to  be  most  efficient  on  large,  successful  plants,  and  because 
it  outlines  methods  which  are  recommended  by  experiment  stations 
in  the  various  States  and  by  the  Federal  Government.  By  making 
free  use  of  the  index,  the  poultryman  can  quickly  find  information 
pertaining  to  almost  any  point  about  which  he  might  wisfi  to 
know.  In  case  of  disease,  improper  feeding,  or  environmental  con- 
ditions, the  information  might  be  of  inestimable  value. 

To  the  farm  poultryman  the  text  clearly  pictures  methods 
which  would  enable  the  keeping  of  more  birds  with  no  more  labor 
and  a  much  increased  profit.  The  methods  given,  if  practised, 
would  enable  the  average  farmer  to  keep  from  two  hundred  to 
five  hundred  birds,  as  a  "  side  line  "  to  general  farm  operations, 
and  realize  a  handsome  revenue. 

The  text  is  so  arranged  that  it  will  meet  the  needs  for  system- 
atic reading  courses,  for  farmers'  clubs,  poultry  associations,  and 
granges. 

The  review  questions  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  for  the 
use  of  students  in  preparing  for  recitations,  for  the  instructor  in 
conducting  reviews,  and  for  the  practical  poultryman  in  grasping 
the  fundamental  points  in  the  discussion.  Reference  lists  are  given 
at  the  close  of  many  of  the  chapters.  Most  of  the  references  are 
to  Federal  and  State  publications  which  can  be  obtained  free  of 


PREFACE  ix 

charge  or  which  can  be  found  in  reference  libraries.  The  miscel- 
laneous references  in  the  appendix  deal  with  the  entire  subject  in 
a  general  way.  It  is  recommended  that  references  be  studied  so 
far  as  facilities  will  permit,  since  a  broader  conception  of  the  sub- 
ject will  thus  be  obtained. 

That  this  book  may  fill  a  place  in  the  world  of  poultry  litera- 
ture, may  meet  the  need  for  a  modern  text-book,  and  may  help 
solve  the  problems  which  are  so  annoying  to  many,  whether  they 
be  students,  poultrymen,  or  farmers,  is  the  earnest  wish  of  the 
author. 

HARRY  R.  LEWIS. 
NEW  BRUNSWICK,  NEW  JERSEY, 
October,  1913. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

THE  author  wishes  to  express  his  obligation  to  a  number  of 
persons  who  have  aided  in  the  preparation  of  the  work.  To  Mr. 
Morris  Roberts,  of  Maplewood,  New  Jersey,  is  due  the  credit  for 
a  number  of  the  pen-and-ink  drawings  reproduced  in  the  text. 
Many  photographs  have  been  supplied  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  experiment  stations,  and  individuals,  credits  for  which 
are  given.  Mrs.  Harry  R.  Lewis  has  materially  aided  in  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work.  Many  practical  poultrymen  and  teachers 
whose  names  are  not  mentioned  have  offered  suggestions  and 
encouragement.  To  all  those  who  have  so  earnestly  aided  in  the 
work  the  author  expresses  his  appreciation  and  indebtedness. 

The  composition  tables  given  in  Chapter  XI  were  compiled 
from  analyses  from  experiment  station  reports  and  various  com- 
position tables.  The  composition  of  many  grains  was  taken  from 
"  Elementary  Treatise  on  Stock  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  by  J.  E. 
Halligan.  Valuable  material  was  also  obtained  from  Bulletin  164 
of  the  California  Experiment  Station,  entitled  "  Poultry  Feeding," 
by  M.  E.  Jaffa.  The  feeding  tables  in  the  appendix  are  almost 
entirely  from  this  source. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


INTRODUCTION— THE  TEACHING  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY    1 

I.  POULTRY  FARMING  AND  WHAT  IT  MEANS    7 

II.  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION .  /; 41 

III.  MAKING  A  SUCCESSFUL  START 56 

IV.  THE  BREEDS  OP  POULTRY 63 

V.  SELECTION  OF  STOCK , 96 

VI.  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 104 

VII.  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 124 

VIII.  POULTRY  FIXTURES 143 

IX.  YARDS  AND  YARDING , 158 

X.  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 169 

XI.  POULTRY  FEEDS 184 

XII.  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING  . . .' 204 

XIII.  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 221 

XIV.  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES  245 

XV.  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  LAYING  STOCK 266 

XVI.  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 281 

XVII.  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  FOWL 292 

XVIII.  FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN 300 

XIX.  NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 312 

XX.  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 326 

XXI.  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING - 348 

XXII.  CARE  OF  THE  GROWING  STOCK 368 

XXIII.  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  A.ND  CAPONS 376 

XXIV.  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

XXV.  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

XXVI.  RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 453 

XXVII.  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 473 

XXVIII.  PARASITES,  DISEASES,  AND  ENEMIES 496 

APPENDIX  . .  516 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIQ"  PAGE 

The  Farm  Flock Frontispiece 

1.  Agricultural  "Gospel "  Train 2 

2.  A  Type  of  Poultry  Educational  Exhibit 3 

3.  Students  Constructing  a  Poultry  House 4 

4.  Students  Killing  and  Picking  Poultry 5 

5.  A  Modern  Farm  Poultry  Plant 8 

6.  Distribution  of  Poultry  in  the  United  States 10 

7.  Noted  Centres  of  Poultry  Production 11 

8.  A  Typical  Farm  Flock  in  the  Middle  West 12 

9.  A  Large  Laying  Flock,  Petaluma,  California 13 

10.  A  Large  Breeding  Flock,  Petaluma,  California 13 

11.  Interior  of  Commercial  Hatchery,  Petaluma,  California 13 

12.  A  General  View  in  the  Petaluma  District 14 

13.  A  Laying  House  Common  in  the  Vineland  District,  N.  J 15 

14.  Each  House  is  a  200-bird  Unit  (Vineland) 16 

15.  A  House  Holding  1000  Birds  at  Vineland 16 

16.  Scenes  from  the  Little  Compton  District,  R.  1 17 

17.  Roaster  Growing  by  Intensive  Methods,  South  Shore  District 18 

18.  Well-grown  South  Shore  Roasters   18 

19.  Incubator  Cellar,  South  Shore  District 19 

20.  Poultry  Plant  of  the  New  Jersey  State  College  of  Agriculture 20 

21.  Refrigerator  Car  for  Shipping  Dressed  Poultry  and  Eggs 21 

22.  Car  for  Shipping  Live  Poultry 21 

23.  A  Farm  for  Intensive  Egg  Production 27 

24.  A  Farm  for  the  Production  of  Fancy  Poultry 27 

25.  Poultry  on  a  Yorkshire  Farm,  England 36 

26.  Plant  of  a  Fancy  Poultry  Keeper  in  England 36 

27.  An  English  Scene  of  Intensive  Poultry  Keeping 37 

28.  A  Typical  Danish  Poultry  House 38 

29.  A  Danish  Egg-grading  and  Packing  Room 39 

30.  Rural  Trolley  Express 43 

31.  Systems  of  Poultry  Farming 45 

32.  Large  Community  Poultry  House 46 

33.  Semi-community  Poultry  Plant 47 

34.  Colony  Houses  for  Poultry  on  Extensive  Range 47 

35.  Ideal  Location  for  Poultry  Farming 49 

36.  Houses  and  Yards  on  a  Hillside,  Giving  Good  Drainage. .  51 

37.  Gallus  Bankiva  Pair 63 

38.  A  Pair  of  Aseel  Fowls 64 

39.  Shapes  of  American  Breeds 68 

xv 


xvf  ILLUSTRATIONS 

40.  Buff  Orpington  Pair 69 

41.  Light  Brahma  Hen 72 

42.  Buff  Leghorns 

43.  A  Pair  of  Mottled  Anconas 74 

44.  A  White  Orpington  Pair 74 

45.  Black  Orpington  Hen 75 

46.  Black-tailed  White  Japanese  Bantams 77 

47.  Ideal  Egg  Shape. 78 

48.  A  Campine  Pair 79 

49.  Single-comb  White  Leghorns 81 

50.  Single-comb  Black  Minorca  Pair 82 

51.  Ideal  Shape  of  the  Meat  Type 83 

52.  Buff  Cochin  Pair 84 

53.  Black  Langshan  Pair 86 

54.  Ideal  General-purpose  Shape 87 

55.  Comparison  of  the  Three  Utility  Types  of  Poultry 88 

56.  The  Most  Popular  Farm  Breed  of  Poultry— B.  P.  Rocks. . . . , 90 

57.  White  Plymouth  Rock  Pair 90 

58.  An  Excellent  General-purpose  Breed — White  Wyandottes 91 

59.  Silver  Wyandottes 92 

60.  Rhode  Island  Reds 92 

61.  The  Cornish  Game 93 

62.  A  Comparison  of  Texture  of  Meat 97 

63.  Eggs  from  Pure  Breeds  and  from  Mongrels 98 

64.  Antiquated  Type  of  Poultry  House 104 

65.  Modern  Type  of  Poultry  House 105 

66.  Floor  of  Standard  Multiple-unit  Laying  House 107 

67.  An  Efficient  Rear  Ventilator  for  Summer  Use 109 

68.  Three  Types  of  Laying  Houses • Ill 

69.  Diagram  Showing  Lines  of  Sun's  Rays 112 

70.  Shapes  of  Houses  Compared,  Showing  Amount  of  Wall  Material 

Required 113 

71.  The  Possible  Growth  of  the  Multiple-unit  Plan 113 

72.  Six  Types  of  Roofs  for  Poultry  Houses 114 

73.  A  Well-framed  Poultry  House 115 

74.  Four  Plans  for  Foundation  and  Floor  Construction 116 

75.  Four  Styles  of  Doors  for  Poultry  Houses 119 

76.  Three  Plans  for  Placing  Openings  in  the  Front  Wall 120 

77.  Types  of  Poultry  Windows 121 

78.  Two  Plans  for  Constructing  Frames  for  Muslin  Curtains 122 

79.  Cross  Section  of  Hillside,  Showing  Manner  of  Grading 124 

80.  Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Laying  Out  Foundation 125 

81.  Five  Steps  in  the  Construction  of  a  Concrete  Foundation 126 

82.  Placing  Fresh  Concrete  in  Forms  for  Wall 127 

83.  Working  Plans  of  Double-unit  Laying  House 129 

84.  Frame  of  Standard  Multiple-unit  Laying  House 130 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

85.  Double-unit  House  Completed 131 

86.  Working  Plans  of  Small-unit  Laying  House .132 

87.  Small-unit  Laying  House  Completed 133 

88a,  6.  Working  Plans  of  Laying  House  with  Two-thirds  Span  Roof  134-135 

89.  Laying  House  with  Two-thirds  Span  Roof 136 

90.  Interior  View  of  Two-thirds  Span  House 136 

91a.  Working  Plans  of  Half-monitor  Laying  House 137 

916.  Half-monitor  Type  of  Laying  House  in  Process  of  Construction 

and  Nearing  Completion 138 

92a.  Working  Plans  of  Portable  Laying  House 140 

92b.  Portable  Colony  Laying  House  Completed 141 

93.  Arrangement  of  Nests,  Perches,  and  Dropping  Boards  ....  144 

94.  Roosting  Closets  to  Prevent  Drafts  at  Night 145 

95.  Four  WTays  of  Locating  Nests 147 

96.  Dark  Wall  Nests,  Arranged  in  Tiers 148 

97.  Coops  for  Broody  Hens 148 

98.  Pearl  or  Maine  State  Trap  Nest 149 

99.  Improved  Connecticut  Trap  Nest 149 

100.  The  Cornell  Trap  Nest 150 

101.  Common  Types  of  Feeding  Troughs 153 

102.  A  Home-made  Dry-mash  Hopper 154 

103.  A  Practical  Drinking  Fountain 155 

104.  A  Hopper  for  Grit  and  Shell 156 

105.  A  Group  of  Commercial  Feeding  Appliances 157 

106.  A  Good  Method  of  Double  Yarding  and  Crop  Rotation 159 

107.  Three  Methods  of  Arranging  Double  Yards 161 

108.  Forms  for  Making  Concrete  Fence  Posts 162 

109.  Manner  of  Bracing  a  Corner  Fence  Post 163 

110.  A  Common  Type  of  Fence  Construction 165 

111.  Ways  of  Bracing  Gate  Posts v 166 

112.  Types  of  Gate  Construction 167 

113.  Graphic  Representation  of  the  Composition  of  the  Bird's  Body  ....   170 

114.  Cross  Section  of  Wheat  Kernel 188 

115.  Rack  for  Sprouting  Oats 189 

116.  A  Tray  of  Sprouted  Oats  Ready  for  Feeding 190 

117.  Mangel-v  urzel  Beets  at  Harvest  Time 199 

118.  Poultry  Feed  House,  Centrally  Located 205 

119.  The  Poultry  Feed  Wagon. 207 

120.  Morphological  Variation,  Illustrated  with  Chicks 236 

121.  Substantive  Variations,  Light  and  Dark  Males 237 

122.  Meristic  Variation,  Four-legged  Chick. . . . 

123.  Functional  Variation,  Eggs  of  Different  Sizes 239 

124.  Rumpless  Birds,  a  Mutation 240 

125.  Inbreeding  Chart,  Showing  Distribution  of  Inherited  Characters.  .  .   247 

126.  Line  Breeding  Chart 249 

127.  "Lady  Lay  More,"  a  Wonderful  Hen 253 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

128.  Strong  and  Weak  Males 255 

129.  Wedge  or  Angular  Shape  Common  in  Good  Layers 257 

130.  Belle  of  Jersey  and  Lady  Cornell,  Two  Phenomenal  Hens 258 

131.  A  Light  Brahma  Pair 260 

132.  An  Example  of  Sexual  Dimorphism 261 

133.  A  Prize-winning  Pair  of  Columbian  Wyandottes 262 

134.  Relation  Between  Yield,  Temperature  and  Selling  Price  of  Eggs.  .   266 

135.  White  Leghorns 267 

136.  Ideal  Individuals  of  the  Single-comb  White  Leghorn  Breed 268 

137.  A  Large-unit  Laying  Flock 271 

138.  A  Simple  and  Efficient  Disinfecting  Outfit 273 

139.  The  Egg-collecting  Pail 287 

140.  Desirable  and  Undesirable  Types  of  Hatching  Eggs 288 

141.  Skeleton  of  the  Fowl 293 

142.  The  Digestive  Tract 296 

143.  Circulatory  System  of  the  Fowl 297 

144.  Male  Reproductive  System 298 

145.  Female  Reproductive  Organs f 301 

146.  Parts  of  the  Completed  Egg 303 

147.  Abnormal  Eggs  Compared  with  Normal  One 306 

148.  Chick  Embryo  Thirty-six  Hours  Old 308 

149.  Chick  Embryo  Three  Days  Old 308 

150.  Hatching  Time 311 

151.  Two  Common  Types  of  Sitting  Coops 316 

152.  Manner  of  Toe  Punching  for  Baby  Chicks 321 

153.  A  Good,  Yet  Simple,  Chick  Leg  Band 322 

154.  An  Average-sized  Flock  by  Natural  Incubation 324 

155.  Working  Plans  for  Incubator  Cellar 328 

156.  Views  Showing  Construction  of  Hollow-tile  Incubator  Cellar 329 

157.  A  Common  Type  of  Hot-air  Incubator 331 

158.  Modern  Mammoth  Incubators 332 

159.  A  Complete  Self-regulating  Device  for  Incubators 333 

160.  Interior  View  of  Incubator  Cellar 340 

161.  A  Useful,  Home-made  Egg  Tester 343 

162.  Eggs  Seven  Days  in  Incubator  as  Seen  When  Tested 344 

163.  Three  Different  Types  of  Long  Brooder  Houses 349 

164.  Mammoth  Hot-water  Brooders 351 

165.  Portable  Indoor  Hovers 352 

166.  Small  Portable  Outdoor  Brooders 352 

167.  Colony  Brooder  Houses 353 

168.  Portable  Gasoline  Brooder  Houses 355 

169.  Chicks  Showing  Pronounced  Symptoms  of  White  Diarrho?a 364 

170.  Growing  Poultry  on  Free  Range 369 

171.  Rearing  Chickens  under  Intensive  Conditions 370 

172.  A  Desirable  Rotation  of  Crops  for  Poultry  Runs 372 

173.  Four  Types  of  Summer  Developing  Houses .  373 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

174.  A  Flock  of  Fowls  Ready  for  Market 377 

175.  Market  Types  of  Broilers 379 

176.  Curves  Showing  Variation  in  Supply  and  Prices  for  Broilers 380 

177.  Rhode  Island  Red  Broilers  Ready  for  Market 382 

178.  Market  Types  of  Roasting  Chickens 387 

179.  Curve  Showing  Variations  in  Market  Prices  for  Roasters 388 

180.  A  Flock  of  Capons  Five  Months  Old 390 

181.  Caponizing  Instruments 394 

182.  Proper  Place  to  Make  Incision  in  Caponizing 395 

183.  Steps  in  the  Operation  of  Caponizing 396-397 

184.  Comparison  of  Weights  with  Capon  and  Cockerel 401 

185.  A  Portable  Battery  of  Feeding  Coops 405 

186.  Common  Type  of  Funnel  Used  in  Cramming 408 

187.  Cramming  Machine 408 

188.  Proper  Method  of  Sticking  and  Dry  Picking 411 

189.  An  Excellent  Killing  Knife 412 

190.  Dry  Picking  Squab  Broilers 415 

191.  Scalding  Poultry 416 

192.  Roaster  Properly  Dressed  for  Retail  Trade 419 

193.  Chart  Showing  Course  of  Products  from  Producer  to  Consumer 425 

194.  The  Relation  of  Temperature  to  Selling  Price  of  Eggs 430 

195.  Interior  of  Mercantile  Exchange,  New  York  City 431 

196.  Egg  Grading  Table  in  Use .434 

197.  A  Popular  Manner  of  Packing  Eggs  for  Shipment 436 

198.  Effect  of  Incubation  Temperature  on  Fertile  and  Infertile  Eggs. . .  .  438 

199.  Stages  in  the  Development  of  the  Embryo .439 

200.  A  Commercial  Egg  Candler  at  Work 441 

201.  Boxes  for  Shipping  Baby  Chicks 444 

202.  Undesirable  Types  of  Market  Broilers 445 

203.  Soft  Roasters  Ready  for  Market 

204.  Methods  of  Packing  Fancy  Grades  of  Dressed  Poultry  .  . 

205.  Broilers  Box-packed  and  Iced  for  Shipment .  .  447 

206.  Three  Methods  of  Keeping  Records 

207.  Students  Washing  Live  Birds  for  Exhibition. .  480 

208.  The  Technic  of  Washing 

209.  Baltimore  Poultry  Exhibit  .... 

210.  A  Body  Louse 

211.  A  Red  Mite 

212.  A  Scaly-leg  Mite 

213.  The  Work  of  the  Scaly-leg  Mite  .... 

214.  The  Gapeworm 511 


215.  The  Common  Roundworm 

216.  The  Tapeworm 

217.  Parts  of  Fowl  Shown  and  Named 515 


PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY  HUSBANDRY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY. 

THE  DEMAND  for  the  teaching  of  poultry  husbandry  in  the 
public  schools  and  colleges  is  increasing  constantly.  Nearly  all 
the  State  colleges  and  universities  are  giving  considerable  time 
to  its  study.  All  secondary  schools  of  agriculture  rank  poultry 
instruction  with  such  subjects  as  dairying  and  fruit  growing. 
Recently  elementary  schools  have  commenced  giving  the  subject 
of  poultry  farming  a  place  in  their  agricultural  teaching. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  poultry  industry  has  witnessed 
an  immense  growth  in  popularity.  This  has  been  due  to  several 
factors:  The  activity  of  the  poultry  press;  the  many  poultry  sys- 
tems; attempts  to  meet  the  high  cost  of  living;  and  a  "  back  to 
the  land  "  movement  on  the  part  of  city  people. 

The  needs  for  poultry  instruction  may  be  classed  as  follows: 
(1)  To  develop  the  best  system  and  systematize  the  various  prac- 
tices; (2)  to  train  men  to  qualify  as  managers  of  large  poultry 
operations;  (3)  to  train  all  classes  of  poultrymen  to  get  the  most 
from  their  birds. 

Diversity  of  Instruction— Poultry  keeping  involves  a  clear 
understanding  of  many  sciences  and  practices.  An  outlined  course 
of  study  must  so  present  these  topics  that  the  amateur  and  prac- 
tical poultry  keeper  can  grasp  the  various  phenomena  as  they 
affect  the  successful  handling  of  poultry,  without  an  extensive 
study  of  the  principles  underlying  the  entire  science.  For  ex- 
ample, the  principles  and  practices  of  feeding  must  show  enough 
of  the  chemistry  of  feed  and  of  digestion  to  give  the  student  the 
reasons  underlying  the  practices  in  feeding.  The  same  might  be 
said  of  breeding,  housing,  and  sanitation. 

The  Value  of  Practical  Application.— It  is  very  desirable  that 
all  students  have  some  previous  experience  in  the  handling  of  a 


2  :TEE  TEACHING  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

flock  of  birds.  Such  experience  will  put  the  student  in  a  position 
to  see  the  importance  of  the  various  lines  of  instruction.  If  such 
previous  practice  is  lacking,  much  of  the  value  of  the  work  will 
unconsciously  be  lost,  owing  to  the  inability  to  grasp  the  practical 
application. 

Types  of  Instruction. — Poultry  instruction  of  different  kinds 
may  be  classified  as  elementary,  secondary,  collegiate,  extension 
teaching,  correspondence  courses,  and  educational  associations. 

Elementary  instruction  should  start  in  the  grammar  grades  of 
the  public  schools,  and  deal  with  the  external  appearance  and 
functional  activities  of  birds  of  all  kinds  and  of  poultry  in  partic- 
ular. Many  fundamental  points  may  be  considered.  The  stu- 
dent's interest  in  this  line  of  agriculture  may  be  aroused. 


FIG.  1. — Agricultural  "Gospel"  train  (Cornell). 

The  secondary  instruction  is  that  given  in  high  schools  and 
schools  of  agriculture.  The  work  at  this  time  should  deal  with 
methods,  care,  and  management ;  and  study  may  be  made  of  differ- 
ent types  and  breeds. 

Collegiate  instruction  is  not  only  a  review  of  general  principles 
and  practices,  but  it  should  deal  with  the  deeper  scientific  prin- 
ciples which  underlie  all  operations.  It  should  consider  the  eco- 
nomic principles,  methods  of  management,  markets,  and  the  rela- 
tion of  supply  and  demand.  Much  time  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
course  may  be  given  to  original  investigation  and  research  work. 

Extension  teaching  may  be  termed  the  "  follow-up  "  method 
of  instruction,  which  should  be  organized  as  a  part  of  the  work  of 
colleges  and  universities.  It  should  be  available  not  only  to  stu- 


TYPES  OF  INSTRUCTION  3 

dents  but  to  all  persons  interested  in  the  keeping  of  poultry, 
whether  beginners  or  experienced  farmers.  Such  instruction  gives 
to  the  poultryman  at  his  home  the  latest  knowledge  pertaining 
to  his  work.  It  shows  in  a  concise  manner  the  results  of  recent 
investigation  and  its  practical  application. 

Some  of  the  methods  of  extension  work  are  as  follows:  (1) 
Extension  lectures  before  agricultural  and  special  poultry  gather- 
ings. (2)  Railroad-train  trips  through  centres  of  poultry  produc- 
tion (Fig  1).  Teaching  carried  on  by  lectures  and  educational 
exhibits.  (3)  Educational  exhibits  at  fairs,  poultry  shows,  and 
grange  picnics  (Fig.  2).  (4)  The  publication  at  regular  intervals 


FIG.  2. — A  type  of  poultry  educational  exhibit. 

of  home-reading-course  circulars  which  tell  in  a  concise  way  the 
practical  application  of  the  latest  findings  from  poultry  experi- 
ments. (5)  Demonstrations  showing  improved  and  scientific 
methods,  such  as  killing,  picking,  caponizing,  grading,  and  packing. 
Correspondence  courses  allow  of  individual  study  of  a  prepared 
set  of  lessons  and  practices;  the  benefit  obtained  depends  upon 
the  practicability  and  completeness  of  the  outlined  lessons,  and 
the  ability  of  the  student  to  grasp  the  meaning  and  to  pursue  the 
course  until  finished.  The  failure  to  study  all  lessons  to  the  end 
of  the  course  often  results  in  little  good  to  those  who  attempt 
gain  their  knowledge  in  this  way. 


4       THE  TEACHING  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Educational  Associations. — The  possibilities  of  poultry  organ- 
ization for  purposes  of  education  are  great.  The  association  may 
have  a  broad  constitution  so  that  it  may,  if  desired,  conduct  co- 
operative buying  and  selling.  The  educational  feature  is  usually 
attained  through  regular  meetings,  at  which  systematic  lectures 
or  lessons  are  outlined  and  discussed.  Much  may  be  gained  from 
general  discussion  of  methods  and  practices,  by  members. 

Laboratory  Practice. — In  any  course  of  instruction,  whether  it 
be  elementary  or  collegiate,  the  lectures  and  lessons  should  be 
supplemented  by  as  much  practical  work  as  equipment  and  time 


FIG.  3. — Students  constructing  a  poultry  house. 

will  permit.  The  practice  work  impresses  upon  the  student  the 
value  of  one  method  over  another.  The  efficiency  of  the  instruc- 
tion is  thus  greatly  increased.  The  following  list  includes  a  few 
of  the  more  practical  operations  which  should  accompany  a  col- 
legiate course  of  instruction: 

The  entire  care  of  a  flock  of  laying  birds  for  a  given  period, 
including  a  complete  record,  showing  cost  and  income. 

The  actual  work  of  designing,  drawing,  and  constructing  poul- 
try houses  (Fig.  3). 

Incubation  and  brooder  practice. 

Methods  of  fattening,  killing,  and  marketing  poultry  (Fig.  4). 

The  grading  and  marketing  of  eggs. 

The  judging  of  poultry  and  the  management  of  a  student 
poultry  show. 


COLLATERAL  READING  5 

There  are  many  more  important  laboratory  operations  of  a 
scientific  nature. 

Collateral  Reading.— All  lectures  and  discussions  should  be 
accompanied  by  a  required  amount  of  outside  reading.  Only 
standard  books  and  periodicals  should  be  recommended,  and  from 
the  results  of  such  reading  written  or  oral  reviews  should  be  given. 
Poultry  literature  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the 


FIG.  4. — Students  killing  and  picking  poultry  (Cornell). 


various  experiment  stations  should  be  freely  used  in  reference 
work.  Any  one  may  obtain  poultry  publications  from  the  experi- 
ment station  of  his  own  State  by  having  his  name  placed  upon  the 
mailing  list. 

In  an  exhaustive  study  of  various  poultry  text-books  there  will 
appear  an  apparent  lack  of  unity  on  many  important  points. 
This  in  some  cases  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  present  knowledge 
does  not  allow  complete  and  positive  decision  on  some  points;  in 
other  cases  the  difference  is  not  real,  but  incomplete  statements 
lead  to  misunderstanding.  A  careful  analysis,  however,  will  show 


6       THE  TEACHING  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

a  general  unity  of  belief  among  the  standard  investigators  in 
regard  to  nearly  all  fundamental  principles  and  practices. 

Home  Experiments. — In  all  types  of  instruction  home  practice 
and  experimental  work  should  be  encouraged.  Each  student 
should  be  urged  to  take  an  interest  in  the  management  of  the  home 
flock,  where  possible,  starting  with  the  elementary  work.  This 
will  enthuse  the  student  and  create  an  interest  in  the  work.  As 
the  student  progresses  he  may  keep  a  record  of  the  egg  yield,  cost 
of  feeds,  and  production  of  the  home  flock,  and  from  these  data 
the  profits  may  be  calculated. 


CHAPTER  I. 

POULTRY  FARMING  AND  WHAT  IT  MEANS. 

POULTRY  KEEPING  as  an  industry  is  so  important  a  subject 
that  at  the  commencement  it  is  necessary  to  outline  just  what  is 
meant  by  the  term  "  POULTRY  FARMING."  As  the  term  is  gener- 
ally used  we  think  of  it  as  meaning  an  exclusive  business,  as  fruit 
growing  or  grain  farming;  with  this  idea  of  the  subject  before  us 
the  outlook  is  not  always  the  brightest. 

Does  it  pay? — The  general  belief  is  that  poultry  farming  does 
not  pay,  and  this  is  only  too  true  in  many  cases  when  the  term  is 
applied  in  the  sense  outlined  above.  There  is  no  branch  of  animal 
husbandry  in  which  so  many  experimental  starts  have  been  made 
and  which  have  resulted  in  total  ruin  as  in  poultry  farming.  This 
is  probably  due  to  at  least  two  causes:  (1)  Beginning  with  too 
large  an  investment  of  capital  and  stock  which  requires  an  immense 
amount  of  energy  and  money  to  keep  running;  or  (2)  in  many 
cases  the  business  has  been  ruined  at  the  outset  by  the  inexperi- 
ence of  the  promoters  who  were  made  to  believe,  by  misleading 
statements  and  fascinating  statistics,  that  poultry  keeping  is  the 
quickest  road  to  a  large  fortune.  While  there  are  many  large, 
exclusive  poultry  farms  which  are  paying  good  dividends,  and 
this  number  is  constantly  on  the  increase,  yet  the  true  meaning 
of  the  term  poultry  farming  does  not  lie  in  this  phase  of  the  work. 

How,  then,  is  the  greatest  chance  of  success  to  be  attained? 
It  is  by  considering  poultry  keeping  as  a  branch  of  the  farmer's 
operations  and  making  it  one  of  the  many  departments  of  his 
work.  Such  a  combination  brings  him  continuous  profit  and  pleas- 
ure. The  large,  exclusive  poultry  plants  should  be  left  to  those 
who  have  had  years  of  experience  in  the  care  and  management  of 
birds  as  well  as  the  sale  and  marketing  of  the  products.  By  start- 
ing the  business  as  a  branch  of  general  farming,  experience  will 
come  as  the  work  goes  on,  and  a  careful  and  systematic  increase 
in  the  size  and  production  of  the  plant  can  be  arranged  so  that  the 
poultry  keeper  can  measure  his  capacity  for  large  things  as  the 
increase  accumulates.  It  is  with  this  thought  in  view  that  the  sub- 
ject of  poultry  farming  is  approached,  the  object  being  to  show 
farmers  and  amateur  poultry  keepers  that  in  poultry  keeping  there 

7 


8 


POULTRY  FARMING 


is  money  to  be  made,  money  which  in  many  cases  could  not  be 
realized  at  all  if  it  were  not  for  this  branch  of  farming  (Fig.  5). 

The  Poultry  Industry  in  the  United  States. — The  United  States 
census  bureau  takes  an  enumeration  of  the  poultry  interests  when 
taking  the  regular  census  every  ten  years.  A  brief  survey  of  the 
last  poultry  census  is  interesting.  The  practice  is  to  consider  only 


FIG.  5. — A  modern  farm  poultry  plant,  where  poultry  raising  is  a  profitable  "side  line" 

to  general  farming. 

fowls  three  months  of  age  or  over  and  only  those  kept  on  farms,  no 
enumeration  being  provided  by  law  for  cities,  towns,  or  villages. 
The  elimination  of  the  poultry  in  these  other  centres  greatly 
reduces  the  reported  number  kept  and  produced  in  the  United 
States.  Investigations  made  in  New  Jersey  show  that  incorporated 
cities  in  the  State  have  one  adult  bird  within  the  city  limits  for 
every  two  and  one-half  persons  enumerated  in  the  census.  It  is 
supposed  that  this  will  run  much  higher  in  towns  and  villages. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  and  value  of  birds  re- 
ported by  the  thirteenth  census,  compared  with  the  number  in  the 
twelfth  census. 

TABLE  I. — United  States  Poultry  Census. 


All  fowls. 

Chickens. 

Turkeys. 

Ducks. 

Geese. 

1910—  Number  

295,830,190 

280,345,133 

3,688,708 

2,906,525 

4,431,980 

$154  663  220 

$140  205  607 

$6  605  818 

$1  567  164 

$3  194  507 

Average  value..  .  . 
Farms  reporting.  . 
Per  cent  of  all 
farms  

$0.52 
5,585,032 

87.8 

$0.50 
5,578,525 

87.7 

$1.79 
871,123 

13.7 

$0.54 
503,704 

7.9 

$0.72 
662,324 

10.4 

1900—  Number  

250,624,038 

233,566,021 

6,594,695 

4,785,850 

5,676,788 

The  table  shows  that  94.7  per  cent  of  all  birds  reported  were 
domestic  fowls  which  are  classified  as  "  chickens,"  in  distinction 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES         9 

from  the  other  kinds  of  poultry.  There  was  an  increase  in  chickens 
of  17  per  cent.  The  average  value  per  fowl  in  1910  was  fifty-two 
cents,  while  in  1900  it  was  only  thirty-four  cents,  the  average  value 
having  increased  over  52.9  per  cent. 

Table  II  shows  the  number  and  value  of  chickens,  reported 
by  geographic  divisions. 

TABLE  II. — Geographic  Distribution  of  Fowls. 


Chicken 

s. 

Division  or  section. 

Number. 

Value. 

1910. 

1900. 

In- 
crease. 

1910. 

United  States  
New  England  

280,345,133 
6,841,918 

233,566,021 
6,440,678 

Per  cent. 
20.0 

6.2 

$140,205,607 
4  975  551 

Middle  Atlantic 

24  449  500 

21  511  436 

13  7 

16  346  1fi1 

East  North  Central.  .  .  . 
West  North  Central.  .  .  . 
South  Atlantic  
East  South  Central  .... 
West  South  Central.  .  .  . 
Mountain  
Pacific  

69,471,413 
85,192,651 
25,627,003 
24,495,054 
29,176,294 
5,467,343 
9,623,957 

58,104,189 
65,364,879 
22,293,912 
22,965,751 
27,333,880 
,3,116,639 
6,434,657 

19.6 
30.3 
15.0 
6.7 
6.7 
75.4 
49.6 

36,609,410 
41,207,295 
11,894,700 
10,272,636 
10,393,418 
3,005,103 
5,501,333 

The  North  

185.955,482 

151,421,182 

22.8 

99,138,417 

The  South  
The  West  

79,298,351 
15,091,300 

72,593,543 
9,551,296 

9.2 
58.0 

32,560,754 
8,506,436 

East  of  the  Mississippi. 
WTest  of  the  Mississippi  . 

150,884,888 
129,460,245 

131,315,966 
102,250,055 

14.9 
26.6 

80,098,458 
60,107,149 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  1910  the  West  North  Central  division 
reported  30  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  fowls  in  the  country. 
The  East  North  Central  division  ranked  next  with  24.3  per  cent, 
and  the  West  South  Central  next  with  10.6  per  cent. 

Figure  6  shows  graphically  the  distribution  of  fowls  by  States 
and  divisions. 

The  number  of  farms  reporting  fowls  raised  in  1909  was  5,655,- 
754,  or  88.9  per  cent  of  all  farms  in  the  United  States;  and  the 
number  of  such  fowls  was  488,468,354,  or  an  average  of  86.4  fowls 
per  farm.  The  total  value  of  such  fowls  was  $202,506,272,  as 
against  $136,830,152  in  1899.  The  value  of  the  poultry  produced 
during  the  decade  shows  an  increase  of  over  48  per  cent. 


10 


POULTRY  FARMING 


In  1909  there  were  produced  in  the  United  States  1,591,311,371 
dozens  of  eggs,  valued  at  $306,688,960.  The  production  in  1899 
was  1,293,662,433  dozens  of  eggs,  and  the  value  $144,240,541. 
While  the  production  of  eggs  during  the  ten  years  increased  but 
twenty-three  per  cent,  the  value  more  than  doubled,  the  exact 
amount  of  gain  being  $162,488,419,  or  112.6  per  cent.  These 
numbers  show  an  increase  in  the  value  of  poultry  and  poultry 


FIG.  6. — Distribution  of   poultry  in  the  United  States.      Each  black  dot   represents  one 
million  birds  on  farms. 

products.    This  has  been  brought  about  by  an  increased  demand 
for  good  products  and  by  an  improvement  in  quality  of  products. 
The  ten  States  leading  in  their  total  value  of  poultry  are: 


Iowa $12,270,000 

Missouri 11,871.000 

Illinois 11,697^000 

Ohio 9,533,000 

New  York 7.879,000 


Indiana 

Pennsylvania 

Kansas 

Michigan 

Texas. . . 


$7,762,000 
7,674,000 
7,377,000 
5,611,000 
4,807,000 


In  these  ten  States  the  total  value  of  the  poultry  is  $86,481,000, 
or  55.9  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  poultry  in  the  continental 
portion  of  the  United  States. 

Noted  Centres  of  Production. — While  the  production  of  eggs 
in  the  United  States  is  widespread,  only  the  central  States  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
Missouri,  Texas,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky  produce  more  than 
are  consumed  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  The  great  numbers  of 


NOTED  CENTRES  OF  PRODUCTION 


11 


eggs  shipped  to  the  eastern  markets  are  classified  as  "  westerns  " 
and  come  from  this  section  of  the  country.  This  section  consti- 
tutes the  "  backbone  of  the  egg  industry,"  and  a  brief  account  of 
the  conditions  is  here  given  (Fig.  7). 

In  the  Central  States  production  is  not  continuous  throughout 
the  year,  as  climatic  conditions  affect  the  laying.  In  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  the  season  of  natural  production  is  from  December 


FIG.  7.— Noted  centres  of  poultry  production.  In  California  the  Petaluma  district; 
in  Massachusetts  the  "South  Shore"  Roaster  district;  in  Rhode  Island  the  Little  Compton 
district;  in  New  Jersey  the  Hunterdon  and  the  Vineland  districts.  Darkly  shaded  States 
are  the  leading  poultry  States,  lighter  shaded  ones  come  next. 

to  April.  During  March  and  April  the  supply  from  Ohio  and 
Missouri  appears  on  the  market;  this  is  supplemented  by  eggs 
from  Texas  and  Kansas.  Later  in  the  spring  the  central  northern 
States,  Minnesota  and  Michigan,  supply  the  markets  with  eggs. 
The  supplies  of  both  the  southern  and  northern  sections  of  this 
egg  belt  fail  to  meet  the  demand  of  the  consuming  public.  The 
population  in  this  section  is  limited,  and  large  quantities  of  eggs 
are  shipped  to  the  centres  of  population  to  supplement  production 
in  those  sections.  Owing  to  the  cheap  price  of  grain  and  land,  the 
eggs  from  central  sections  compete  very  profitably  with  those  pro- 
duced near  large  markets,  even  with  lower  prices  and  poorer 
quality.  fi 

The  eggs  produced  during  the  early  spring  are  usually  ot  nne 
quality.  But  they  are  produced  on  farms  where  advantages  of 


12  POULTRY  FARMING 

grading  are  not  appreciated,  and  are  handled  so  carelessly  that 
the  quality  is  often  very  bad  when  they  reach  the  point  of  consump- 
tion. Conditions  are  worse  during  late  spring  and  early  summer, 
when  the  weather  is  warm  and  extra  care  is  necessary  to  cause 
the  eggs  to  reach  the  market  in  good  condition. 

The  eggs  produced  in  this  section  are  sold  to  local  merchants, 
"  case  count,"  and  often  hauled  many  miles  over  rough  roads  and 
exposed  to  hot  sunlight  before  being  sold.  They  are  then  often 
held  many  days,  and  are  finally  shipped  by  local  freight  to  some 


FIG.  8. — A  typical  farm  flock  in  the  Middle  West.      (Photo  by  U.  S.  Dcpt.  of  Agrir-ulturo.) 

central  shipping  point  where  they  are  candled  and  graded.  The 
loss  during  the  warm  months  is  very  great.  The  price  drops  all 
along  the  line,  because  the  quality  is  poor. 

Improved  methods  in  marketing  can  best  be  attained  through 
cooperation.  A  general  practice  on  the  part  of  merchants  to  buy 
all  eggs  "  loss  oft7  "  will  do  much  to  increase  the  quality.  This 
will  bring  greater  returns  to  the  poultry  raisers  in  this  great 
territory  (Fig.  8). 

The  Petaluma  district  of  California  is  well  known  by  the  gen- 
eral public  and  poultry  raisers  as  one  of  the  most  intensive  egg- 
producing  centres  of  the  country  (Fig.  9).  The  industry  is  con- 
fined to  a  limited  area  near  Petaluma,  California,  and  is  carried 
on  by  very  intensive  artificial  methods.  The  chief  product  is 
white-shelled  eggs  of  high  quality  for  the  large  markets  on  the 
western  coast.  The  farms  are  small,  ranging  from  five  to  fifteen 


NOTED  CENTRES  OF  PRODUCTION 


13 


FIG.  9.— A  large  laying  flock,  Petaluma,  Cal.,  with  characteristic  portable  laying  houses 


FIG.  10. — A  large  breeding  flock  at  a  commercial  hatchery,  Petaluma,  Cal. 


FIG.  11. —  Interior  of  a  commercial  hatchery,  Petaluma,  Cal. 


POULTRY  FARMING 


NOTED  CENTRES  OF  PRODUCTION. 


15 


acres.  The  birds  are  kept  in  large  flocks,  having  the  entire  range 
of  the  farm;  and  the  houses  are  often  located  in  groups.  Each 
poultry  farmer  simply  cares  for  his  mature  stock,  as  there  are 
often  as  many  as  two  thousand  birds  on  a  five-acre  farm.  All 
hatching  and  much  of  the  early  brooding  is  done  by  specialists 
who  own  and  operate  large  comniercial  hatcheries  (Figs.  10  and 
11).  Most  of  such  establishments  have  their  own  breeding  stock. 
The  egg  producers  keep  no  males  with  their  flocks,  but  buy  enough 
chicks  from  the  hatchery  to  supply  their  needs  each  year.  The 
breeding  birds  on  such  hatching  plants  are  given  free  range;  and 
care  in  mating  and  breeding  is  practised  to  maintain  a  high  degree 


FIG.  13. — A  laying  house  common  in 


the  Vineland  district,  N.  J. 


of  vitality.  The  methods  at  Petaluma  are  different  from  those 
practised  elsewhere  in  America,  and  poultrymen  will  watch  with 
much  interest  the  intensive  methods  being  followed  there  (Figs. 
9,  10,  11,  and  12). 

The  Vineland  district  in  New  Jersey  is  another  specialized 
section,  which  resembles,  in  many  respects,  the  Petaluma  district. 
It  centres  around  the  city  of  Vineland  (Figs.  13  and  14). 
white  Leghorns  are  kept,  with  the  object  of  supplying  the  New 
York  City  market  with  white-shelled  eggs  of  highest  quality. 
The  farms  in  this  section  are  small,  ranging  from  one  to  ten  acres. 
Each  farm  has  from  five  hundred  to  two  thousand  layers  (Fig.  15); 
but  there  are  some  exceptionally  large  farms  in  the  same  com- 
munity. Most  of  the  farmers  hatch  and  rear  their  own  I  ds, 
artificial  methods  being  the  most  common.  The  birds  are  kept, 


16 


POULTRY  FARMING 


two  hundred  to  five  hundred  together,  in  long,  shed-roof  laying 
houses.  The  soil  is  very  sandy  and  the  winters  mild,  thus  offer- 
ing ideal  conditions  for  such  large  flocks.  The  district  comprises 
about  ten  square  miles.  It  is  estimated  that  over  one  hundred 
thousand  adult  Leghorn  fowls  are  here  kept  under  these  inten- 
sive conditions. 


FIG.  14. — Each  house  is  a  200-bird  unit  (Vineland). 

Hunterdon  County. — There  is  another  section  in  the  same 
State  which  comprises  the  whole  of  one  county, — namely,  that  of 
Hunterdon,  in  the  north-central  part  of  New  Jersey.  It  is  pri- 
marily a  section  for  general  and  dairy  farming.  But  upon  each 
farm  there  are  usually  kept  from  two  hundred  to  one  thousand 
laying  hens,  white  Leghorns  predominating.  The  object  is  white 


Fin.  15. — A  house  holdii 


thousand  birds  at  Vineland. 
more  general  use. 


Large  units  are  coming  into 


eggs  for  the  New  York  City  markets.  This  county  alone  winters 
over  three  hundred  thousand  laying  hens.  The  methods  practised 
in- this  district  are  noticeably  extensive,  the  farms  being  large  and 
the  birds  being  given  unlimited  range.  This  is  one  of  the  oldest 
egg-producing  sections  of  note  in  America,  and  the  extensive 
methods  practised  for  years  are  still  proving  the  most  profitable 
under  the  existing  conditions. 


NOTED  CENTRES  OF  PRODUCTION 


17 


The  Little  Compton  district  in  Rhode  Island  produces  brown 
eggs  for  the  New  England  markets.  Here  the  colony  system  is 
exclusively  used  (Fig.  16).  The  birds  are  kept  in  small  flocks,  in 
isolated  houses  scattered  over  a  large  area  and  no  fences  are  used. 
The  feeding  and  watering  are  done  from  wagons  at  regular  inter- 


:    i 


FIG.  16. — Scenes  from   the  Little   Compton   district,  R.  I.    Note  the   extensive    colony 
system  and  the  cheap  houses.     (Photos  by  P.  W.  Almy.) 

vals.  Owing  to  the  poor  character  of  the  soil,  general  farm  crops 
are  not  profitably  grown.  In  this  district  the  cost  of  production 
of  eggs  is  small,  and  the  financial  returns  are  good.  This  is  due 
to  the  reduced  labor  and  the  small  investment  in  houses.  Natural 
methods  in  hatching  and  rearing  are  almost  entirely  used. 

Market  Poultry. — There  are  two  sections  interesting  for  their 


18 


POULTRY  FARMING 


production  of  market  poultry,  the  soft  roaster  district,  commonly 
known  as  the  South  Shore  district  of  eastern  Massachusetts,  and 
the  capon  district  of  New  Jersey. 


FIG.   17. — Roaster   growing   by  intensive   methods,    South   Shore   district.     (Photo   by 
E.  O.  Damon,  owner.) 

The  South  Shore  district  is  noted  for  the  high  quality  of  soft 
roasting  chickens  which  are  marketed.  The  work  is  usually  sec- 
ondary to  other  lines  of  agricultural  endeavor;  but  there  are  many 


FIG.  18. — Well-grown  South  Shore  roasters.     (Photo  by  E.  O.  Damon,  owner.) 

specialized  plants,  producing  from  two  thousand  to  six  thousand 
roasters  in  a  season  (Figs.  17,  18,  and  19).  The  smaller  producers 
raise  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred.  The  profit  from  this 
work  is  very  satisfactory,  ranging  from  eighty  cents  to  one  dollar 


MODERN  DEVELOPMENTS  19 

per  bird.    This  is  due  to  the  short  period  necessary  to  hold  each 
individual  before  selling. 

The  capon  district,  previously  mentioned,  is  made  up  of  thou- 
sands of  general  farms  in  the  western  part  of  central  New  Jersey 
Each  farmer  raises  yearly  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  capons 
for  the  Philadelphia  and  New  York  markets.  The  birds  are  given 
free  range  throughout  the  entire  period  of  their  growth,  and  are 
allowed  to  roost  in  sheds  or  other  outbuildings.  The  cost  for 
feed  is  low,  as  grain  farming  is  practised  quite  commonly  and  the 
birds  have  the  run  of  the  fields 
after  harvest.  The  profit  per 
bird  under  the  existing  condi- 
tions varies  from  one  to  two 
dollars.  The  practice  of  ca- 
ponizing  is  gaining  rapidly  in 
this  section,  owing  to  the  suc- 
cess of  those  already  engaged 

•n/r                     -nk          1  FIG.  19. — Incubatorcellar  in  the  South  Shore 

Modern      Developments. district,  Mass.,  showing  economical  construc- 

Recent  years   have  witnessed     ^Va  DamoTown'ef) in  m°rtar'   (Photo 
great  changes  in  the  poultry 

industry.  The  changes  have  been  toward  greater  concentration 
and  specialization.  There  are  now  many  exclusive  egg  farms 
scattered  over  the  more  thickly  populated  sections.  Many  of 
them  have  from  two  thousand  to  fifteen  thousand  layers.  This 
specialization  has  placed  the  poultry  business  upon  a  scientific 
basis.  This  development  of  special  egg  farms  has  brought  about 
great  improvements  in  methods  of  marketing.  There  is  a  closer 
relation  between  producer  and  consumer.  .This  is  largely  accom- 
plished by  guaranteeing  a  strictly  fresh  and  clean  product,  for  a 
definite  price  above  regular  wholesale  quotations.  This  naturally 
leads  to  more  care  in  marketing  the  products  and  an  endeavor  to 
meet  market  requirements  as  they  are  found  in  the  various  sections. 
The  industry  has  taken  on  a  very  popular  aspect,  and  many 
people  who  are  engaged  in  occupations  other  than  agriculture 
have  gone  into  poultry  raising  in  a  small  way.  This  popularity 
has  called  for  and  has  been  met  by  rapid  development  in  the 
facilities  for  poultry  education  at  the  various  State  colleges,  and 
poultry  departments  have  been  established  at  many  experiment 
stations  (see  Appendix).  The  work  of  experiment  stations 
tends  to  make  poultry  raising  an  exact  science.  Many  colleges 


20 


POULTRY  FARMING 


offer  short  courses  in  poultry  husbandry  of  from  six  to  twelve 
weeks  during  the  winter  months,  the  time  being  devoted  largely 
to  lectures,  demonstrations,  and  practical  work  (Fig.  20).  These 
are  of  much  value  to  the  amateur  who  desires  to  become  familiar 
with  the  details  and  requirements  of  the  business,  as  well  as  to 
the  practical  poultryman  who  desires  to  become  familiar  with  the 
most  modern  ideas  pertaining  to  his  occupation. 

Poultry  Organizations. — Among  the  greatest  factors  which 
are  working  for  the  improvement  of  the  industry  are  the  numer- 
ous organizations  being  formed  in  all  sections.  The  majority 
were  formerly  organizations  of  fanciers,  but  the  element  of 
utility  has  more  recently  been  included.  Associations  working 


FIG.   20. — A   plant   used  for  instruction  and  experimental   work,    New  Jersey   College  of 

Agriculture. 

along  both  fancy  and  utility  lines  should  do  a  great  good. 
Organization  for  educational  purposes  alone  is  gaining  ground 
every  day.  New  Jersey,  for  example,  has  an  association  in 
each  county  and  a  State  organization  composed  of  delegates 
from  each  county  association.  Its  main  purposes  are  education 
and  cooperation. 

Changes  in  Management. — Great  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  general  management  of  the  flocks  themselves.  The  most 
prominent  of  these  is  the  general  substitution  of  dry-mash  feeding 
for  wet  mash.  Another  change  is  the  housing  of  birds  in  open  or 
curtain-front,  well-ventilated  houses,  in  contrast  to  the  old  types 
of  closed,  warm  houses. 

Publications. — The  value  of  systematic  advertising  has  be- 
come more  fully  recognized,  as  will  be  readily  seen  by  an  exami- 
nation of  the  poultry  press.  This  calls  attention  to  another 
great  development, — namely,,  that  of  poultry  magazines  and 


SHIPPING 


21/ 


papers.  There  are  numerous  periodicals  devoted  entirely  to 
poultry  topics.  Aside  from  these,  practically  all  the  agricultural 
papers  devote  some  space  to  the  subject.  Columns  or  depart- 
ments are  set  aside  for  poultry  •  matters  in  many  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  Some  of  the  leading  daily  papers  employ 
special  poultry  editors. 

The  fattening  industry  has  not  progressed  in  the  same  ratio  as 
other  branches.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  there  is  not 
enough  demand  for  the  high  quality  of  meat  which  could  thus  be 
produced.  When  market  requirements  call  for  such  artificial 
methods  in  producing  better  fowls,  for  table  use,  that  branch  will 
show  a  rapid  improvement.  That  time  is  not  far  distant. 


FIG.  21. — Refrigerator  car  used  for  shipping 
dressed  poultry  and  eggs.  An  important  factor 
in  widening  the  market  for  the  Western  poul- 
try keeper.  (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


FIG.  22. — Cars  for  shipping  live  poultry.      (U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Duck  Raising. — The  growing  of  broiler  and  roaster  ducks  has 
seen  an  almost  unprecedented  rise  during  recent  years.  Formerly 
very  few  were  produced  and  it  was  very  hard  to  market  at  a 
profit  the  few  which  were  grown.  With  the  advent  of  the  meat- 
fed  broiler,  conditions  changed.  It  did  not  then  take  long  to  edu- 
cate the  consumer  to  the  desirability  of  having  broiler  ducks  for 
table  purposes.  In  certain  sections  of  the  East,  especially,  this 
industry  has  reached  immense  proportions.  On  Long  Island  there 
are  many  plants  which  annually  produce  over  fifty  thousand  broiler 
ducks.  It  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  remunerative  branches 
of  the  entire  industry. 

Shipping. — The  improved  facilities  for  transporting  poultry 
and  eggs  long  distances  by  rail  at  a  reasonable  cost  constitute  a 
step  in  advance.  Shipments  are  made  under  almost  perfect  storage 
and  sanitary  conditions  by  the  extensive  use  of  refrigerator  cars 
by  fast  freight  and  express  (Figs.  21  and  22). 


22  POULTRY  FARMING 

The  Future. — In  view  of  the  great  developments  which  have 
taken  place,  combined  with  the  constantly  increasing  demand  for 
poultry  of  all  classes,  there  is  a  very  bright  future  for  the  industry 
as  a  whole. 

Poultry  Keeping  for  Business  and  Pleasure. — Profit  is  the 
main  object  of  poultry  farming,  yet  the  pleasure  which  accompanies 
it  is  often  an  important  consideration.  The  complexity  of  the 
branches  makes  it  difficult  to  separate  these  two  objects.  All 
poultry  keeping  falls  under  one  of  the  following  heads:  Poultry 
keeping  (1)  as  a  business;  (2)  as  an  employment;  (3)  as  an  invest- 
ment; (4)  for  family  use;  (5)  for  fancy  points. 

Poultry  Keeping  as  a  Business. — This  phase  of  poultry  keep- 
ing is  carried  on  by  one  who  invests  both  his  time  and  money  in 
the  enterprise.  It  may  be  either  an  exclusive  poultry  business  or 
a  side  line  to  general  farm  operations.  Many  thousands  of  small 
producers  consider  poultry  of  secondary  importance.  The  number 
of  poultry  keepers  making  a  living  from  the  production  of  eggs 
and  poultry  is  rapidly  on  the  increase.  These  have  usually  com- 
menced the  business  in  a  small  way,  and  have  started  to  specialize 
as  their  experience  grew. 

To  make  the  business  successful,  a  man  must  have  become 
expert  in  the  care  and  management  of  fowls,  must  have  a  good 
business  training,  good  judgment,  and  must  be  accurate,  prompt, 
and  methodical.  These  qualities  are  only  gained  by  training  and 
experience.  The  beginner  has  the  example  of  many  earlier  poultry 
keepers  to  guide  him,  and  thus  the  road  to  success  is  much  quicker 
and  surer;  books  and  papers  are  within  the  reach  of  all;  and  prac- 
tical instruction  is  easy  to  obtain  after  the  rudimentary  principles 
are  learned.  These  must  be  secured  before  work,  even  for  instruc- 
tion purposes,  can  be  obtained  on  any  of  the  large  plants. 

A  man  should  never  start  out  in  poultry  keeping  as  an  extensive 
business  until  he  has  learned  it  thoroughly  by  experience. 

Poultry  keeping  as  an  employment  is  taken  to  include  all  ex- 
amples where  one  gives  his  entire  time  to  poultry  work,  receiving 
compensation  for  time  so  given.  The  demand  for  poultry  labor, 
both  skilled  and  unskilled,  is  constantly  on  the  increase.  The 
opportunities  are  very  similar  to  those  offered  by  other  branches 
of  farm  work.  The  wages  received  by  skilled  labor  vary  with  the 
experience  and  ability  of  the  man,  size  of  the  plant,  and  the  amount 
of  responsibility  assumed.  The  size  of  the  plant  is  the  smallest 
factor.  The  poultry  laborer  has  fairly  long  hours  of  work  and 
moderate  rate  of  pay,  but  his  work  is  sure  to  be  steady.  For  one 


POULTRY  KEEPING  FOR  BUSINESS  AND  PLEASURE       23 

who  likes  it,  there  is  always  a  great  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  it 
as  well  as  a  great  variety  in  the  day's  routine. 

Unskilled  poultry  labor  receives  about  the  same  rate  of  wage 
as  the  average  farm  laborer  of  the  same  locality;  but  there  is  a 
much  greater  chance  for  study  and  rapid  advancement  for  those 
who  are  anxious  and  ambitious  to  reach  better  things. 

The  field  of  poultry  labor  lies  open  to  young  men  who  are 
desirous  of  taking  up  some  form  of  farm  work  and  who  have  not 
the  time  nor  money  to  devote  to  an  extended  education  along 
other  lines  of  agriculture.  A  few  months  spent  in  one  of  the  modern 
poultry  short  courses  will  equip  an  energetic  and  ambitious  young 
man  so  that  he  can  get  a  start.  He  can  learn  the  fine  points  of  the 
business  by  experience  on  poultry  plants  and,  at  the  same  time, 
get  an  income  from  it. 

Poultry  Keeping  as  an  Investment. — This  phase  of  poultry  keep- 
ing is  the  placing  of  one's  money  in  the  poultry  business  without 
devoting  any  time  or  labor  to  its  management.  The  investment 
of  surplus  funds  where  the  investor  does  not  manage  the  business 
is  generally  a  bad  policy.  Success  largely  depends  (1)  on  the 
selection  of  a  manager,  (2)  on  the  owner's  knowledge  of  the  busi- 
ness and  its  requirements,  and  (3)  on  the  amount  of  capital  which 
can  be  used  when  necessity  demands. 

Poultry  raising,  being  a  business  of  details,  requires  very  care- 
ful and  conscientious  management,  more  so  than  any  other  branch 
of  farm  work.  The  manager  must  be  well  trained  in  the  practical 
side  of  poultry  raising  as  well  as  the  theoretical.  The  more  years  of 
actual  experience  he  has  had  the  better.  If  the  one  who  is  invest- 
ing his  funds  in  poultry  work  has  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  business 
in  a  practical  way,  good  results  are  much  surer.  Location  and  situa- 
tion with  reference  to  markets  are  important  items  to  be  considered 
before  making  a  heavy  investment.  If  one  has  a  large  amount  of 
capital,  he  is  much  surer  of  making  a  success;  he  is  then  able  to 
meet  any  emergency  of  any  kind  and  still  continue  the  business. 
Set-backs  and  poor  seasons  will  happen,  and  one  should  never  in- 
vest his  entire  means.  Keep  a  reserve  to  help  in  extreme  cases. 

The  first  investment  should  not  be  too  heavy.  It  is  better 
to  start  in  a  limited  way  until  one  can  determine  what  the  returns 
will  actually  be.  The  investment  can  be  increased  yearly  as  the 
business  increases.  A  slow  normal  increase  is  much  better  and 
surer  than  an  extremely  rapid  and  abnormal  one.  Poultry  keeping 
as  an  investment  must  be  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  often  takes  years 


24  POULTRY  FARMING 

to  build  up  a  large  plant  before  it  is  on  a  paying  basis.  For  this 
reason  inexperienced  investors  often  blame  their  managers  for 
things  which  they  cannot  avoid.  Due  care  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of  the  manager.  Then  it  is  best  to  outline  the  charac- 
ter of  the  work  to  be  followed  and  leave  the  details  to  the  manager. 

Before  investing  in  any  way,  one  should  get  all  information 
possible  from  all  sources.  A  good  poultry  text-book  should  be 
supplemented  by  poultry  journals.  Take  trips  to  large,  up-to-date 
poultry  plants ;  and  make  a  study  of  general  and  local  market  con- 
ditions. There  are  many  opportunities  open  to  the  investor  which 
offer  surer  returns  than  poultry  keeping.  This  is  shown  clearly 
when  the  conditions,  causing  the  failure  of  so  many  of  our  large 
poultry  plants,  are  studied  closely. 

Poultry  Keeping  for  Family  Use. — The  object  of  keeping  small 
flocks  of  poultry  on  most  of  our  farms  and  suburban  lots  is  two- 
fold: (1)  to  supply  eggs  and  fresh  poultry  for  the  home  table; 
(2)  to  market,  at  a  profit,  what  is  not  consumed  at  home. 

On  very  many  general  farms,  the  fowls  are  considered  as  a 
side  issue  and  of  no  great  importance.  Consequently,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  neglect  is  found  and  unsatisfactory  results  must 
be  expected.  There  is  usually  no  one  to  take  special  care  of  the 
birds;  there  is  no  judgment  used  in  breeding — scrubs  and  mongrels 
are  often  kept;  any.  house  which  will  barely  keep  the  birds  dry  is 
considered  good  enough ;  and  scraps  from  the  table  and  steady  ra- 
tions of  corn  are  considered  sufficient.  Not  until  some  member  of 
the  family,  whether  child  or  parent,  takes  hold  of  the  matter  and 
changes  the  improper  conditions,  does  the  flock  show  its  true  worth. 
It  must  be  recognized  that  the  farm  flock,  no  matter  what  its  size, 
has  a  direct  financial  value.  The  greater  care  and  attention  the 
fowls  receive  the  greater  will  be  the  returns.  By  breeding  and 
selection,  the  mongrels  should  be  eliminated  and  pure-bred  stock 
introduced.  This  will  increase  the  value  of  the  birds  for  market 
and  breeding  purposes.  The  birds  must  be  given  well-built  and 
sanitary  houses  and  proper  feed  to  secure  the  products  which  are 
expected  of  them.  Often  a  start  made  in  this  small  way  develops 
until  the  owner  finds  himself  a  breeder  of  no  small  rank. 

The  main  purpose  of  the  family  flock  is  usually  profit,  and  the 
pleasure  side  of  it  is  often  under-estimated.  The  owner  should 
consider  the  fowls  scattered  about  the  home  as  an  asset  in  beauti- 
fying the  same,  and  making  it  more  livable.  They  give  the  poorer 
man  in  the  country  and  city  who  loves  domestic  animals  a  luxury 


POULTRY  KEEPING  FOR  BUSINESS  AND  PLEASURE       25 

at  small  cost,  for  which  his  wealthy  neighbor  is  willing  to  pay 
liberally.  The  family  flock  is  usually  a  success  so  far  as  profit  is 
concerned,  as  there  is  very  little  outlay  in  feed  and  time.  The 
refuse  from  the  table  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  feed.  So  the  eggs 
are  produced  at  a  smaller  cost  per  dozen  than  would  be  possible 
if  the  birds  were  kept  in  large  flocks,  all  of  the  feed  purchased,  and 
extra  help  needed  to  care  for  them.  The  beginner  often  reasons 
that  if  a  few  birds  pay  a  large  profit,  then  one  hundred  times  as 
many  birds  will  increase  the  profit  one  hundred  fold.  That  such 
is  not  the  case,  he  will  find  upon  trial,  to  his  own  grief. 

It  is  by  the  small  flocks  that  the  great  mass  of  our  market  eggs 
and  poultry  are  produced.  Anything  which  tends  to  increase 
their  productiveness  and  raise  them  from  their  inconspicuous  place 
in  the  farmer's  mind  will  do  much  for  the  industry. 

Poultry  Keeping  for  Fancy  Points. — The  breeding  of  fancy 
poultry  means  the  breeding  of  high-class,  pure-bred  birds  which 
approach  perfection  as  near  as  possible.  Each  fancier  must 
place  before  him  a  standard  of  excellence  and  strive  to  reach  it. 
The  exhibition  of  the  best  birds  at  poultry  shows  and  the  winning 
of  prizes  bring  an  income  which  pays  well  to  the  one  who  succeeds. 
Many  fanciers  breed  poultry  just  for  the  joy  and  recreation  which 
they  get  from  it,  yet  the  majority  figure  on  a  good  financial  profit 
as  well. 

Breeding  fancy  specimens  which  approach  perfection  is  an  art; 
it  requires  much  careful  thought  and  a  training  and  study  in  the 
laws  of  breeding  and  selection.  Usually  a  breeder  selects  one  par- 
ticular breed  and  devotes  his  entire  attention  to  that.  Sometimes 
it  is  the  improvement  of  an  old  and  well-established  breed  which 
is  undertaken.  At  other  times  an  entirely  new  breed  is  developed. 

The  poultry  fanciers  of  to-day  rarely  depend  upon  the  plumage 
pattern  of  their  birds  alone  to  bring  them  in  the  greatest  return, 
but  combine  utility  qualities  with  fancy  points.  Wherever  the 
breeding  of  fowls  for  fancy  points  has  been  successfully  carried  on, 
there  has  always  been  a  general  improvement  of  the  common 
stock.  The  fancier  must  never  forget  the  utility  qualities  of  his 
birds  and  sacrifice  them  for  the  finer  fancy  points.  The  result 
would  be  a  general  weakening  rather  than  an  upbuilding  of  the 
stock.  The  tendency  of  overestimating  the  value  of  some  minor 
fancy  points,  to  the  sacrifice  of  utility,  is  rapidly  disappearing. 

Many  of  our  most  noted  breeders  of  to-day  started  with  a 
small  beginning  and  by  breeding  for  quality  rather  than  quantity 


26  POULTRY  FARMING 

have  achieved  marked  success.  The  breeders  of  pure-bred  poultry 
have  united  in  forming  National  and  State  organizations.  Every 
breed  has  its  favorites  who  have  formed  special  breed  associations 
and  clubs  for  the  advancement  of  that  particular  breed.  One  of 
the  largest  and  most  extensive  poultry  organizations  in  the  world 
is  the  American  Poultry  Association.  Its  members  represent  the 
leaders  in  all  branches  of  poultry  throughout  America. 

When  once  having  started  to  breed  pure-bred  birds,  due  vigil- 
ance and  care  in  management  and  in  breeding  must  be  maintained. 
Birds  left  to  shift  for  themselves  will  tend  to  revert  to  the  former 
type  and  usually  become  less  beautiful  and  less  useful. 

The  field  of  the  breeder  of  fancy  and  pure-bred  poultry  is 
limitless. 

Separate  Poultry  Industries. — Poultry  keeping  as  an  industry 
may  be  grouped  under  two  rhain  divisions, — namely,  exclusive 
poultry  keeping,  and  poultry  keeping  as  a  side  line  to  some  other 
branch  of  work.  The  former  is  properly  called  specialized  farming, 
as  all  endeavors  of  the  farmer  are  centred  on  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  poultry.  In  the  majority  of  cases  poultry  keeping  is 
carried  on  as  a  side  line.  The  extent  of  that  one  branch  of  the 
farm  work  may  vary  from  a  very  small  place  in  the  time  and  atten- 
tion of  the  owner  to  that  of  the  largest  branch  of  the  work.  Most 
poultry  products  are  from  the  general  farms  of  the  country. 

Exclusive  poultry  keeping  may  be  subdivided  again  into  special 
industries,  as  (1)  egg  farming  and  (2)  meat  farming.  These 
special  industries  may  be,  and  often  are,  combined;  but  one  is 
usually  given  the  greater  prominence.  Egg  production  is  often 
the  leading  one  with  the  production  of  meat  an  adjunct  to  it. 
Large,  exclusive  egg  farms  are  usually  located  in  the  thickly  settled 
sections  of  the  country,  near  large  cities,  and  a  special  price  is 
received  for  the  guaranteed  marketed  product  (Fig.  23).  Some 
egg  farms  make  a  specialty  of  eggs  only  twenty-four  hours  old, 
the  date  of  laying  being  stamped  on  the  shell;  others  sell  sterile 
eggs,  for  which  an  increased  price  is  paid,  if  properly  marketed. 

Poultry  meat  farms  may  be  grouped  under  the  heads :  broiler, 
roaster,  or  capon  farms.  These  may  be  run  exclusively  or  in  com- 
bination, or  either  one  may  be  run  in  connection  with  egg  farming. 
The  latter  is  undoubtedly  the  best  practice.  Where  the  production 
of  meat  is  the  leading  part  of  the  business,  it  requires  much  more 
careful  management,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  returns  are  not 
continuous  the  entire  year.  There  are  certain  seasons  during  which 


SEPARATE  POULTRY  INDUSTRIES 


27 


large  revenues  are  received  for  the  various  classes  of  market  poul- 
try; at  other  seasons  of  the  year  it  would  not  pay  to  ship  them. 
The  broiler  season  extends  from  September  to  January;  a  good 
roaster  can  be  sold  at  any  time  of  the  year,  but  often  at  a  re- 
duced price  per  pound;  capons  bring  the  highest  prices  from 


FIG.  23. — A  farm  for  intensive  egg  production.      Three  thousand  birds  housed  on  five  acres. 

November  to  March.  A  broiler  during  the  height  of  the  season 
often  brings  as  high  as  fifty  or  sixty  cents  per  pound.  Out  of  the 
season  twenty  cents  is  a  good  price,  which  may  be  less  than  the 
cost  of  production. 

A  new  phase  of  the  poultry  business  is  the  community  hatchery 
(Fig.  11).     A  poultryman  who  understands  the  business  and  is 


FIG.  24. — A  farm  for  the  production  of  fancy  poultry.     Note  the  small  units,  systemat- 
ically arranged,  making  special  matings  possible.     (Courtesy  of  Harmony  Park.) 

suitably  located  takes  eggs  from  smaller  poultrymen,  hatches  them, 
and  delivers  the  chicks  at  hatching  time,  or  in  some  cases  broods 
them  to  the  age  of  three  or  more  weeks. 

One  of  the  greatest  specialties  of  the  business  is  that  of  the 
poultry  breeder  who  improves  his  birds  by  careful  matings,  ex- 
hibits at  shows,  and  sells  eggs,  chicks,  and  adult  birds  entirely  for 
breeding  purposes  (Fig.  24).  Success  in  this  branch  depends  on 
the  name  and  standing  which  the  breeder  has. 


28  POULTRY  FARMING 

There  are  not  only  the  various  specialties  outlined  here,  but 
many  other  branches,  as  the  keeping  of  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  and 
wild  game.  The  broiler-duck  business,  for  instance,  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  profitable  branches  of  poultry  keeping. 

The  advantages  of  poultry  keeping  are  many.  The  amount 
of  land  and  capital  required  is  not  great.  There  are  a  great  variety 
of  products.  These  are  easy  to  market.  The  money  invested 
brings  quick  returns.  The  business  is  suited  to  persons  of  either 
sex.  Land  is  made  more  fertile.  Poultry  utilize  waste  products. 

Land  and  Capital  Required. — It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  no  other 
branch  of  animal  industry  is  there  so  little  need  of  an  extended 
outlay  in  land  and  capital  to  make  a  successful  start  as  in  poultry 
keeping.  The  investment  in  land  is  least  for  those  birds  which 
are  not  of  a  roving  nature,  as  ducks  and  heavy  fowls.  With  turkeys, 
and  some  other  classes  which  by  nature  are  wild,  more  land  is 
required.  They  do  not  thrive  so  well  in  close  confinement.  Five 
acres  will  amply  accommodate  one  thousand  laying  hens  and  pro- 
vide room  for  the  rearing  of  the  young  stock  to  replace  the  old 
ones.  Experiments  show  that  less  land  is  required  than  was  for- 
merly supposed.  When  many  birds  are  kept  on  a  small  area  the  cul- 
tivation and  sanitation  must  be  more  thorough.  If  scarcity  of  land 
is  not  a  difficulty  to  be»met,  then  the  most  economical  method  is  to 
allow  free  range.  If  the  feed  is  to  be  grown  at  home,  much  more 
land  is  required, — about  an  acre  for  every  one  hundred  birds. 
Growing  chicks  require  much  more  range  than  adult  birds.  An 
abundance  of  park  room  or  large  runs  should  be  allowed  the  young 
pullets  and  cockerels.  Fattening  fowls  require  very  little  room; 
it  is  desirable  to  keep  them  closely  confined  during  the  finishing 
period,  as  a  much  greater  gain  in  weight  is  secured  by  so  doing. 

The  first  question  usually  asked  by  a  person  starting  out  in 
any  business  is,  "  How  much  will  it  cost?  "  Unlike  most, other 
ventures,  the  poultry  business  may  be  started  in  a  small  way  with 
very  little  capital.  When  starting  in  egg  production  for  market 
purposes,  the  first  cost  for  stock  is  very  small;  but  if  starting  into 
the  breeding  of  fancy  or  show  birds,  this  item  is  much  greater. 
A  modest  beginning  is  best.  This  can  later  be  extended  and  more 
and  newer  equipment  can  be  purchased  as  the  business  grows.  The 
small  flock  on  the  average  farm  will  thrive  with  little  scientific 
care.  As  the  numbers  are  increased  there  is  a  greater  chance  for 
disease  and  a  greater  need  of  careful  and  systematic  attention  to 
detail  of  management,  which  can  come  only  from  experience. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  POULTRY  KEEPING  29 

Great  Variety  of  Products.— The  poultry  business  is  made  up 
of  so  many  different  branches  that  the  beginner  is  enabled  to 
select  the  one  which  will  best  fit  his  own  conditions.  He  must  first 
study  market  requirements  and  land  conditions.  The  poultry- 
man  having  only  a  small  plat  can  go  into  the  breeding  of  pure-bred 
stock  and  the  production  of  market  eggs.  The  rearing  of  chicks 
to  be  marketed  later  as  roasters  or  capons  requires  a  much  larger 
area  and  different  conditions.  On  the  average  farm  which  is  run 
exclusively  for  egg  production,  there  are  a  number  of  by-products 
which  bring  in  a  large  revenue.  Next  in  order  after  egg  production 
is  the  raising  and  sale  of  market  poultry,  both  the  surplus  males 
and  the  old  stock.  Aside  from  this  is  the  poultry  manure,  which 
if  properly  gathered  and  stored  can  be  sold  as  fertilizer  to  truck 
farmers  and  growers  of  small  fruits.  There  is  also  a  revenue  from 
feathers  if  they  are  dry-picked  and  well  cured. 

Products  Easy  to  Market. — With  modern  means  of  transporta- 
tion, it  is  possible  for  the  poultryman  to  put  upon  a  special  market, 
many  miles  away,  eggs  which  are  not  over  twenty-four  hours  old, 
and  for  which  an  extra  price  is  easily  received.  It  is  also  possible 
to  ship  poultry  products  much  farther,  and  yet  have  them  reach 
market  in  much  better  condition  than  many  other  farm  products, 
as  market  milk,  perishable  vegetables,  and  tender  fruits.  It  should 
be  the  aim  of  every  poultryman  to  produce  the  best  which  is  pos- 
sible and  then  to  market  the  product  in  the  most  attractive  and 
sanitary  way.  By  so  doing  he  may  get  a  quick  and  sure  market 
for  all  his  shipments.  As  soon  as  customers  learn  that  a  worthy 
article  is  regularly  produced,  a  great  demand  is  immediately  de- 
veloped for  that  particular  product  from  the  same  source.  A 
permanent  market  is  easily  secured  in  this  way. 

With  all  poultry  products  a  great  value  is  represented  in  small 
bulk.  They  are  much  easier  to  handle,  both  in  preparing  for 
market  and  during  shipment,  than  the  bulky  agricultural  products. 
Express  charges  are  relatively  small,  considering  the  value  carried. 

Poultry  products,  especially  eggs,  owing  to  their  small  bulk  and 
high  food  value,  can  be  easily  stored,  and  if  properly  handled  can 
be  kept  for  from  six  months  to  one  year  in  cold  storage  and  still  be 
useful  as  human  food.  This  practice  of  holding  eggs  from  season 
to  season  in  storage  is  used  for  speculative  purposes,  and  eggs  are 
sometimes  kept  much  longer  than  desirable  from  the  food  stand- 
point. It  is  very  easy  to  hold  them  from  spring,  when  large  num- 
bers are  laid,  until  the  next  winter,  when  they  may  bring  good 


30  POULTRY  FARMING 

prices  on  the  wholesale  markets.  The  extended  storage  of  eggs 
over  periods  of  two  or  more  years  for  speculative  purposes  is  dis- 
couraged by  law.  There  will  always  be  a  demand  for  fresh  eggs, 
because  "  An  egg  is  an  egg," — that  is,  a  fresh  egg  is  known  to 
contain  certain  food  materials  that  cannot  be  adulterated. 

With  poultry  products,  more  than  with  any  other  kind  of  farm 
products,  one  can  determine  months  in  advance  the  approximate 
price  to  be  realized.  The  production  of  eggs  is  affected  by  tem- 
perature, and  the  price  varies  accordingly.  During  the  spring 
months  a  heavy  production  is  certain,  and  the  price  is  always 
lowest  then.  During  the  winter  production  is  limited,  and  the 
price  received  per  dozen  is  high.  Knowing  this,  the  egg  farmer 
should  try,  by  all  known  methods  of  care  and  management,  to  get 
a  maximum  egg  yield  during  the  winter  months,  when  the  price 
is  high  and  a  first-class  market  for  fresh  eggs  is  certain. 

Quick  Returns  for  Money  Invested. — The  investor  with  small 
capital  must  get  returns  quickly  if  he  is  to  make  a  success  of  his 
investment.  Poultry  keeping  offers  inducements  to  this  kind  of 
investor,  as  there  is  no  branch  of  animal  husbandry  which  offers 
such  quick  returns.  In  any  branch  of  the  business — whether  eggs, 
broilers,  roasters,  capons,  or  fancy  stock — the  products  are  ready  for 
market  in  a  very  short  time.  Considering  the  longest  possible  course 
which  one  could  pursue, — namely,  the  saving  of  eggs  for  hatching 
to  raise  pullets  to  be  kept  for  egg  production, — the  products  will 
be  ready  for  market  in  from  five  to  nine  months,  depending  on  the 
breed  kept.  This  one  fact  of  quick  returns  explains  why  many 
small  investors  are  always  starting  into  the  business. 

Suited  to  Persons  of  Either  Sex. — Poultry  keeping  requires  no 
complicated  machinery  or  heavy  equipment.  For  this  reason  it 
is  well  suited  to  women  as  well  as  men.  It  is  also  suited  to  persons 
who  are  unable  to  perform  hard  manual  labor  and  who  are  willing 
to  put  time  and  thought  into  the  work  at  hand. 

More  than  half  of  the  poultry  of  the  country  is  on  farms  where 
farmers'  wives  and  daughters  do  most  in  taking  care  of  the  flocks. 
Some  of  our  largest  poultry  plants  to-day  are  successfully  managed 
by  women.  As  a  rule,  a  plant  large  enough  to  make  a  living  for 
a  family  is  beyond  a  woman's  strength.  In  many  cases  some  male 
member  of  the  family  can  do  the  heavy  work  about  the  plant 
and  assist  a  woman  in  keeping  a  flock  of  five  hundred  to  eight 
hundred  birds.  The  family  income  may  thus  be  given  a  substantial 
increase. 


PROFITS  FROM  POULTRY  31 

Many  women  have  been  successful  as  fanciers  and  as  poultry 
breeders.  As  a  rule,  women  succeed  much  better  with  the  brooding 
and  care  of  little  chicks,  as  they  are  willing  to  give  them  careful 
attention  during  the  critical  period.  To  the  extent  of  paying 
attention  to  details,  women  make  the  best  poultry  keepers,  and 
are  usually  very  successful  in  making  small  flocks  pay. 

Invalids  are  attracted  to  poultry  keeping  in  a  small  way,  as  it  is 
an  occupation  with  much  outdoor  work.  The  work  is  not  heavy, 
yet  the  poultry  keeper  must  be  out  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  If  the 
sickness  is  such  that  this  is  impossible,  the  work  should  not  be 
attempted.  An  invalid  engaged  in  poultry  keeping  may  expect  to 
make  some  part  of  his  living  from  it.  If  he  increases  in  physical 
strength,  he  may  increase  the  plant  accordingly.  One  may  safely 
enter  the  business  feeling  that  he  is  not  physically  unfitted  for  the 
work  required,  provided  he  likes  it  and  has  the  perseverance  to 
push  ahead. 

Increase  Fertility  of  the  Soil. — Aside  from  the  commercial  value 
of  the  poultry  manure  there  is  a  great  increase  in  the  fertility  of 
the  land  over  which  the  birds  run.  On  a  general  farm  it  is  prob- 
ably more  economical  to  use  all  the  poultry  manure  than  to  attempt 
to  sell  it.  The  fertilizing  constituents  of  poultry  droppings  in  the 
fresh  state  are  about  as  follows:  Nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid 
each  16  pounds  and  potash  8  pounds  in  a  thousand  pounds  of 
droppings.  Poultry  manure  is  the  richest  of  all  the  farm  manures. 
Compared  with  commercial  fertilizers  the  three  ingredients  men- 
tioned make  the  fresh  droppings  worth  about  $7.50  per  ton.  The 
manure  should  be  carefully  collected  and  used  as  a  concentrated 
fertilizer  for  farm  crops. 

Utilize  Waste  Products.— Poultry  help  to  save  many  waste 
seeds  and  grains  on  the  general  farms.  They  consume  many  of 
the  by-products  which  otherwise  would  be  an  entire  loss.  This  is 
true  of  inferior  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  refuse  from  the  table. 
Many  insects  and  weed  seeds  are  consumed.  A  market  value  can 
be  realized  on  these  when  selling  poultry  products. 

Disadvantages  of  Poultry  Keeping. — The  business  may  at  times 
demand  more  hard  work  and  sacrifice  of  time  than  is  agreeable  to 
the  parties  concerned.  Even  with  modern  methods  of  sanitation 
there  will  be  occasional  outbreaks  of  contagious  disease  which  will 
cause  a  large  loss  of  life  and  greatly  diminish  profits. 

Profits  from  Poultry. — The  first  question  asked  of  any  business 
is,  "  Does  it  pay?"  It  can  safely  be  said  that  poultry  keeping  pays 


32  POULTRY  FARMING 

a  surer  income,  year  after  year,  on  the  money  invested  than  any 
other  business  with  which  the  farmer  is  connected.  The  time  has 
passed  when  it  was  the  unanimous  opinion  that  poultry  does  not 
pay.  There  are  too  many  men  actively  engaged  in  it  and  making  a 
comfortable  living,  as  well  as  too  great  a  number  with  yearly  incomes 
well  up  into  the  thousands,  for  there  to  be  any  doubt  in  the  matter. 
It  has  been  proved  over  and  over  again  that  failure  cannot  be  laid 
to  the  business,  but  to  the  man  at  the  head  of  the  business. 

There  is  no  danger  of  the  business  being  overdone  for  many 
years  to  come,  because  the  demand  is  greatly  ahead  of  the  supply 
and  is  constantly  on  the  increase.  The  United  States  is  compelled 
to  import  millions  of  dozens  of  eggs,  besides  other  poultry  products, 
each  year  to  keep  up  with  the  demand.  There  have  been  times 
when  the  prices  would  fluctuate  out  of  season,  due  to  speculation 
in  cold-storage  products,  but  with  better  laws  governing  the  storage 
of  products  this  becomes  less  possible.  There  need  never  be  any 
fear  of  large  combines  being  formed  to  "  freeze  out "  the  small 
producer,  because  the  industry  is  composed  of  thousands  of  small 
units,  and  the  middleman  or  dealers  must  have  their  products. 

It  is  possible  to  make  enormous  profits  from  the  poultry  busi- 
ness, some  of  our  noted  breeders  making  $30,000  or  over  in  one 
year.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  men  who,  to  all  outward 
appearances  equally  as  well  fitted  for  the  work,  have  lost  that 
much  on  poultry  in  a  very  short  time. 

Great  mistakes  are  made  by  the  uninitiated  in  figuring  profits 
on  paper.  The  enthusiastic  amateur  will  usually  work  it  out  as 
follows:  One  hen  will  lay  twelve  dozen  eggs  a  year,  which  at 
twenty-five  cents  a  dozen  will  bring  in  three  dollars.  It  costs  one 
dollar  to  feed  her,  which  will  leave  a  profit  of  two  dollars  per  hen 
per  year.  If  five  hundred  hens  are  kept,  they  will  return  a  profit 
of  $1,000,  and  if  one  thousand  hens,  $2,000;  and  so  on  until  he 
knows  he  is  to  be  a  millionaire.  This  is  not  meant  to  show  that 
this  rate  of  profit  cannot  be  realized.  In  fact  many  of  our  experi- 
enced poultrymen  are  doing  better,  but  it  is  only  after  years  of 
experience.  Therefore,  the  best  advice  to  the  amateur  would  be 
to  start  in  a  small  way  and  find  out  by  actual  experience  just  what 
can  be  made  out  of  the  business.  In  this  way  experience  may  be 
gained  without  having  to  pay  dearly  for  it,  as  would  be  the  case 
in  a  heavy  first  investment. 

Profit  depends  largely  on  cost  and  methods  of  feeding.  The 
cost  of  poultry  feed  has  risen  considerably  during  recent  years. 


PROFITS  FROM  POULTRY  33 

Poultry  keepers  have  learned  more  fully  the  feed  requirements  for 
winter  egg  production.  It  is  found  in  most  cases  to  be  impossible 
to  feed  the  laying  hen  for  less  than  $1.50  per  year.  Formerly 
this  could  be  done  for  $1.00  to  $1.20.  Heavy  producing  flocks 
often  run  up  to  $2.00  or  over.  There  is  much  need  of  experi- 
ence in  profitable  feeding.  The  profit  from  feeding  comes  from 
the  feed  which  is  consumed  over  and  above  the  amount  which  is 
required  for  the  maintenance  of  the  body.  The  following  may  be 
considered  about  the  average  to  be  expected  on  a  commercial 
plant  which  is  managed  by  one  with  years  of  successful  experience. 

Production  of  the  Average  Hen  on  a  Well-managed  Plant. 

Eggs  laid  per  year 120 

Value  of  eggs  at  an  average  of  2Y2  cents $3.00 

Cost  of  feed .  .  1 .50 

Cost  of  labor  per  year 30 

Profit  over  cost  of  feed 1.50 

Net  profit .• 1 .20 

In  explanation  of  the  above  it  may  be  said  that  120  eggs  was 
found  to  be  the  average  of  sixteen  commercial  plants  in  the  State 
of  New  Jersey  during  1911.  The  average  farm  flock  is  not  up  to 
this,  yet,  with  a  little  more  care  and  a  slightly  increased  outlay 
in  feed  and  improved  buildings,  the  average  production  of  the 
farm  flock  could  be  greatly  increased,  and  the  profit  per  bird 
doubled.  The  average  production  of  all  farm  flocks  during  the 
same  time  was  estimated  to  be  92  eggs  per  hen  per  year.  Two 
and  one  half  cents  apiece  was  below  the  average  wholesale  price 
for  New  Jersey  eggs  the  same  year.  Numerous  experiments  and 
observations  carried  on  by  the  writer  show  the  approximate  cost 
of  labor  per  bird  to  be  thirty  cents.  This  cost  was  when  a  double 
system  of  yarding  was  used  and  green  feed  was  grown  directly 
in  the  runs. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  compare  the  above  figures  with  the 
following  results  which  were  obtained  during  the  "  Money-in- 
Poultry  "  contest  held  under  the  management  of  the  American 
Agriculturist,  which  closed  April  1,  1901,  with  over  500  contestants: 

Production  of  the  Average  Hen. 

Eggs  laid  per  year 

Value  of  eggs  at  2^  cents $1.85 

Cost  of  feed 94 

Cost  of  labor 

Profit  over  cost  of  feed 

Net  profit •  •  •       -57 

3 


34  POULTRY  FARMING 

From  a  comparison  of  the  two  tables  it  will  readily  be  seen 
that  the  quality  of  the  average  hen  is  increasing,  especially  as 
regards  number  of  eggs.  This  is  due  undoubtedly  to  better  feed- 
ing and  more  careful  and  systematic  breeding. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  estimate  the  yearly  profit  from  a  hen, 
a  cost  of  $1.50  for  feed  and  a  return  of  $1.00  over  cost  of  feed  are 
pretty  safe  figures  to  rely  on.  If  there  is  any  error  it  will  be  on 
the  safe  side.  It  must  be  understood  that  it  will  take  a  well- 
managed  plant  to  equal  this.  At  the  same  time  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  results  far  superior  to  the  above  are  very  common 
on  modern  plants  when  much  thought  and  energy  are  thrown  into 
the  work.  A  number  of  different  plants  have  been  closely  studied 
by  the  author,  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  which  have  turned 
out  yearly  profits  of  from  18  to  27  per  cent  on  the  investment. 
The  largest  percentage  of  profit  was  on  moderately  small  plants 
of  from  200  to  400  birds.  The  18  per  cent  profit  was  on  a  plant  with 
a  laying  capacity  of  over  2,000.  This  illustrates  a  very  common 
fact :  Usually  as  the  plant  becomes  larger  and  more  birds  are  kept, 
the  owner  or  manager  is  less  able  to  look  after  the  necessary  de- 
tails; as  these  details  are  left  to  others,  there  is  too  apt  to  be  a 
corresponding  loss.  This  is  not  figured  when  making  calculations 
of  profits  on  paper. 

Here  a  word  of  warning  will  not  be  out  of  place:  Beware  of 
the  poultry  advertiser,  or  "  poultry  system/'  which  claims  im- 
mense profits  per  bird  per  year.  These  are  constantly  seen  in 
poultry  papers,  with  special  advertisements  claiming  from  $5.00 
to  $8.00  profit.  It  is  well  for  the  prospective  investor  to  weigh 
the  statements  carefully  and  if  possible  obtain  the  advice  of  an 
expert  before  investing  heavily  in  such  "  systems."  The  adver- 
tiser may  be  doing  all  that  he  claims  and  be  acting  in  good 
faith,  yet  many  of  the  systems  would  be  an  utter  failure  in  in- 
experienced hands.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  remembered 
that  profits  which  are  derived  from  the  various  branches  of  the 
business  vary  greatly.  It  is  possible  for  the  breeder  of  high-class 
exhibition  birds  to  make  a  large  income  from  a  few  birds;  this  is 
only  after  years  of  breeding  and  the  winning  of  many  high  prizes 
at  poultry  shows. 

Risks  in  the  Business. — The  poultry  business,  as  with  all 
other  established  enterprises,  is  subject  to  certain  risks  which  no 
amount  of  forethought  can  entirely  overcome. 

In  the  first  place,  prices  will  at  times  fluctuate,  and  profits 


BRIEF  REVIEW  OF  FOREIGN  POULTRY  KEEPING         35 

must  vary  according  to  the  character  and  amount  of  fluctuation. 
But,  as  was  previously  stated,  this  fluctuation  is  at  all  times  less, 
and  can  be  more  readily  foreseen,  than  in  any  other  business. 

In  the  second  place,  there  are  causes  entirely  beyond  control 
which  may  cause  failure  or  delay  success, — such  as  ravages  of 
disease,  fire,  or  close  competition  in  a  local  market.  All  these 
influences  must  be  taken  into  consideration  by  the  investor,  and 
the  remotest  chance  of  the  occurrence  of  any  one  of  them  avoided 
if  possible.  The  poultry  business,  while  unique  in  many  respects, 
is  not  exempt  from  the  influences  affecting  other  lines  of  normal 
business. 

The  vital  question  confronting  the  American  poultryman 
to-day  is  not,  How  can  I  get  better  prices  for  poultry  products? 
but,  How  can  I  produce  a  higher  quality  at  a  lower  cost?  This 
same  question  was  the  important  one  years  ago,  and  its  solu- 
tion will  always  be  of  vital  moment.  The  factors  which  can 
be  made  to  partially  solve  the  problem  at  the  present  time 
are:  (1)  Better  birds;  (2)  more  careful  mating  and  breeding; 
(3)  scientific  study  of  laws  governing  nutrition ;  (4)  more  liberal 
feeding  during  heavy  producing  periods;  (5)  more  economical 
and  sanitary  housing  of  the  laying  stock;  and  (6)  more  attention 
to  the  handling  and  marketing  of  poultry  products.  With  thought 
and  attention  to  these  points  the  yearty  profit  per  bird  would 
show  a  great  increase. 

Brief  Review  of  Foreign  Poultry  Keeping. — European  countries 
as  a  whole  have  received  a  great  awakening  along  poultry  lines  dur- 
ing recent  years,  there  being  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of 
fowls  kept,  also  a  great  improvement  in  the  breeds  maintained 
and  in  the  methods  adopted. 

In  England  the  poultry  industry  is  greatly  handicapped  by 
the  preservation  of  foxes  for  the  purpose  of  the  hunt.  There  is 
a  special  tax  which  goes  to  defray  the  injury  done  to  poultry  from 
this  source,  yet  in  many  cases  justice  is  not  done.  In  some  in- 
stances false  claims  are  entered  which  tend  to  make  unpleasant 
conditions  common. 

In  spite  of  this  handicap  the  industry  has  increased  annually 
until  the  yearly  production  has  reached  about  ten  million  dollars. 
The  one  great  peculiarity  of  the  English  system  is  the  use  of  small 
portable  houses,  sometimes  on  wheels,  which  can  be  easily  moved 
from  place  to  place,  thus  giving  the  birds  new  ground  at  all  times. 
The  majority  of  English  flocks  of  poultry  are  kept  on  small 


36 


POULTRY  FARMING 


farms  and  made  to  pay  good  dividends,  considering  the  time  and 
money  spent  for  their  care  (Figs.  25,  26,  and  27). 

England  is  the  home  of  the  Orpington  fowl,  large  numbers  of 


FIG.  25. — Poultry  on  a  Yorkshire  farm.      Several  varieties  are  commonly  kept  on  one 
farm.      (Photo  by  Edward  Brown.) 

which  have  been  sent  to  the  United  States  and  to  several  European 
countries  by  English  breeders.  Conditions  could  be  easily  reversed 
so  far  as  America  is  concerned.  By  studying  European  de- 
mands American  breeders  could  find  a  market  for  well-bred 
birds  of  their  most  popular  breeds. 


FIG.  26. — Plant  of  a  fancy  poultry  keeper  in  England.     (Photo  by  Edward  Brown.) 

Scotland  and  Wales  are  not  noted  as  poultry  countries.  In  the 
former  very  few  birds  are  kept,  ducks  and  geese  predominating, 
and  in  Wales  there  are  considerable  numbers  kept  on  ranges,  but 
they  are  of  very  poor  quality. 

Ireland  has  received  within  the  last  few  years  a  great  amount 


BRIEF  REVIEW  OF  FOREIGN  POULTRY  KEEPING         37 

of  help  and  instruction  through  government  aid.  Her  poultry 
industry  is  rapidly  coming  to  the  front,  especially  the  production 
and  immediate  marketing  of  eggs.  In  methods  of  fattening  and 
finishing  birds  for  markets  she  has  yet  much -to  learn.  Ireland 
is  a  country  of  small  farms,  especially  suited  for  this  work. 

In  France  conditions  are  entirely  different.  The  industry  is 
almost  universal  and  has  been  so  for  hundreds  of  years.  The 
Ministry  of  Agriculture  lends  its  powerful  influence,  and  each  year 
large  shows  are  held  under  its  supervision.  These  include  all 
classes  of  poultry  as  well  as  eggs  and  dressed  poultry.  France 


FIG.  27. — An  English  scene  of  intensive  poultry  keeping,  with  small,  elevated,  unit  houses. 
(Photo  by  Edward  Brown.) 

not  only  supplies  her  own  needs  but  exports  large  amounts  to 
England.  It  is  estimated  that  the  value  of  poultry  and  eggs  pro- 
duced yearly  in  France  is  over  $76,000,000,  which  is  nearly  double 
the  amount  produced  in  the  British  Isles,  and  above  one-fourth 
the  value  of  the  poultry  products  in  the  United  States  for  the 
year  1900.  Poultry  keeping  is  made  a  part  of  all  farm  operations. 
It  is  especially  used  in  combination  with  vineyards,  where  it  helps 
to  keep  insects  in  check.  Fowls  are  always  allowed  free  range, 
except  during  the  season  when  the  fruit  is  ripening,  and  the  best 
birds  are  produced  on  the  same  areas  where  the  best  grapes  are 
produced.  The  French  fowls  are  known  the  world  over  for  qual- 
ity of  flesh  and  size  of  egg. 


38  POULTRY  FARMING 

In  Belgium  poultry  keeping  is  carried  on  to  a  relatively  im- 
portant extent.  The  intensive  methods  characteristic  of  Belgian 
farmers  are  in  vogue.  Large  numbers  of  young  birds  are  fattened 
for  export  trade,  and  recently  the  production  of  eggs  for  export 
has  taken  a  rapid  stride  forward.  The  egg  industry  has  been 
increased  by  importing  from  Italy  thousands  upon  thousands  of 
young  pullets,  mostly  Leghorns,  at  from  three  to  five  months  of 
age.  These  are  kept  entirely  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  lot  of 
eggs  in  a  short  time  for  export  trade. 

The  German  Empire  is  not  a  heavy  producer  of  eggs  nor  poultry, 
but  imports  large  quantities  from  Russia  and  Italy. 

Denmark  has  shown  the  same  unequaled  success  in  her  poultry 
work  which  has  been  characteristic  of  all  her  agricultural  endeavors. 


FIG.  28. — A  typical  Danish  poultry  house.     A  roosting  room  is  at  each  end  with  a  glass- 
front  scratching  shed  between.     Brick  is  commonly  used. 

During  the  ten  years  from  1890  to  1900  the  number  of  birds  more 
than  doubled.  At  the  beginning  of  that  period  egg  production 
was  practically  nonexistent.  The  Danes  are  noted  for  coopera- 
tion, and  their  poultry  industry  has  been  greatly  benefited  by  the 
organization  of  poultry  societies,  which  help  the  farmers  to  secure 
better  markets.  As  a  consequence  they  have  introduced  what  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  perfect  system  of  grading  and  crating,  as 
well  as  a  system  of  marketing  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  Up 
to  the  present  time  market  poultry  has  not  received  a  prominent 
place  in  their  industry;  but  they  have  proven  themselves  capable 
of  such  wonderful  development  and  organization  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  foretell  what  they  will  accomplish  in  the  future  (Figs. 
28  and  29). 

Italy  does  not  hold  the  place  in  the  world's  poultry  keeping 


BRIEF  REVIEW  OF  FOREIGN  POULTRY  KEEPING         39 

which  should  be  expected  of  a  country  where  two  of  the  greatest 
egg  breeds  of  to-day  originated.  The  Leghorns  and  Anconas  are 
from  the  Italian  peninsula.  The  northern  part  of  the  country  is 
especially  suited  to  the  work,  as  the  agricultural  districts  are 
divided  into  small  farms.  The  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are 
all  that  could  be  desired.  There  are  movements  toward  coopera- 
tion which  should  yield  excellent  results  in  the  future. 

Austria- Hungary  has  made  rapid  strides,  due  largely  to  organ- 
ization and  cooperation  in  shipping  and  marketing.    The  lighter 


FIG.  29. — A  Danish  egg-grading  and  packing  room.    Eggs  are  packed  in  bulk,  in  nests  of 

excelsior. 

birds  are  predominant.  It  is  stated  by  the  Hungarian  Poultry 
Association  that,  of  all  branches  of  agriculture,  poultry  keeping  is 
best  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  country.  The  statements 
are  also  made  that  Hungary  exports  as  much  value  in  poultry 
products  as  in  grain,  and  that  poultry  pays  ten  times  as  much  as 
any  other  branch  of  its  agriculture.  There  is  a  great  future  ahead 
in  Hungary  for  poultry  keeping. 

Russia  is  a  great  exporting  country,  owing  to  its  large  area,  but 
is  backward  in  its  methods  and  results.  The  fowls,  as  a  rule,  are 
small  and  poorly  bred.  The  majority  are  kept  by  peasants,  and 
the  flocks  are  very  small.  From  ten  to  twenty  is  the  average  num- 
ber kept  by  one  peasant.  Under  these  conditions  the'eggs  produced 


40  POULTRY  FARMING 

can  be  sold  very  cheaply,  as  the  fowls  are  fed  almost  entirely  on 
waste  and  allowed  at  night  to  stay  under  any  shelter  which  is  most 
convenient.  The  Russian  government  has  made  several  endeavors 
to  aid  the  industry,  but  is  hindered  by  the  ignorance  of  a  large 
mass  of  the  population. 

In  European  countries,  as  a  rule,  the  mass  of  the  production  is 
upon  small  farms  and  from  small  flocks.  The  greatest  advance  has 
been  attained  in  sections  where  the  producers  have  cooperated 
in  securing  better  market  conditions  and  better  methods  of  ship- 
ping and  marketing,  and  where  there  has  been  a  steady  and  con- 
scientious attempt  to  improve  both  the  stock  and  methods  of 
management.  The  one  great  fact  which  the  United  States  should 
learn  and  make  use  of  from  these  countries  is  the  necessity,  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  attained,  of  immediate  steps  toward  system- 
atic organization  and  cooperation,  to  see  that  the  producer  re- 
ceives adequate  returns  for  his  products. 

REVIEW. 

1 .  What  is  meant  by  the  term  poultry  farming? 

2.  Give  the  number  and  value  of  poultry  in  the  United  States  in  1910. 

3.  Give  the  percentage  increase  in  numbers  and  production  during  the  pre- 

ceding ten  years. 

4.  Where  is  the  greatest  egg  producing  section  of  the  United  States? 

5.  Describe  the  method  of  poultry  farming  in  the  Petaluma  district,  Cal. 

6.  Describe  the  method  of  poultry  farming  in  the  Vineland  district,  N.  J. 

7.  For  what  is  the  Little  Compton  district  famous? 

8.  For  what  is  the  South  Shore  district  famous? 

9.  Name  five  modern  developments  which  have  revolutionized  the  poultry 

industry. 

10.  Discuss  poultry  keeping  as  a  business. 

11.  As  an  employment. 

12.  As  an  investment. 

13.  For  family  use. 

14.  For  fancy  purposes. 

15.  Enumerate  the  various  separate  poultry  industries. 

16.  Name  and  discuss  the  advantages  of  poultry  keeping. 

17.  What  are  the  possible  disadvantages? 

18.  What  do  you  consider  a  reasonable  profit  from  poultry? 

19.  What  are  the  risks  of  the  business? 

20.  Give  a  brief  review  of  poultry  keeping  in  the  leading  European  countries. 

References. — The  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States: 
Agriculture,  "Distribution  and  Magnitude  of  the  Poultry  and  Egg  Industry," 
by  G.  F.  Thompson,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Report,  1902. 


CHAPTER  II. 

LOCATION  AND  SITUATION. 

Location  is  a  term  used  especially  to  designate  different  sections 
of  the  country.  By  it  is  meant  the  particular  place  which  is  selected 
for  the  poultry  plant  with  reference  to  markets  and  climate. 

Situation  deals  with  more  definite  points  in  regard  to  planning 
and  lay-out  of  the  plant,  as  position  of  buildings  and  yards.  It 
has  to  do  with  the  selection  of  the  particular  site  for  the  plant  on 
the  farm  chosen.  The  study  of  the  situation  of  the  plant  is  appli- 
cable to  all  classes  of  poultry  keeping,  while  the  study  of  location 
is  not  important  to  the  farmer  owning  his  own  farm  or  to  the  subur- 
ban poultry  keeper  who  only  keeps  enough  for  his  own  use  on  land 
already  acquired. 

Factors  in  Location. — The  following  factors  have  a  definite 
relation  to  the  matter  of  location  and  should  be  considered  care- 
fully by  the  prospective  investor:  (1)  Markets;  (2)  means  of 
rapid  communication  and  transportation;  (3)  type  of  poultry 
farming;  (4)  systems  of  poultry  farming;  (5)  climatic  and  soil 
conditions. 

As  in  every  business,  a  location  which  is  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  business  is  absolutely  essential.  Poor  location  has  been  the 
direct  cause  of  many  failures. 

Markets. — In  the  consideration  of  markets  there  are  always  two 
factors  which  are  antagonistic, — namely,  nearness  to  market  and 
price  of  land.  The  nearer  to  the  city  the  business  is  located  the 
greater  will  be  the  amount  of  money  required  to  be  invested  in 
land.  This  is  especially  true  where  it  is  desired  to  locate  on  the 
very  outskirts  of  a  large  centre  of  population.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  poultry  products  can  be  shipped  reasonable  distances  by  rail, 
it  is  not  always  necessary  to  pay  the  price  required  for  a  close 
proximity  to  market. 

It  is  very  essential,  with  keepers  of  small  plants  who  desire  to 
retail  their  products,  that  they  be  within  short  hauling  distance 
of  a  market  which  will  demand  the  amount  and  kind  of  product 
they  expect  to  furnish.  Such  home  markets  can  usually  be  found 
in  small  towns  or  villages  where  the  price  of  near-by  land  is  not  a 
prohibitive  factor. 

41 


42  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION 

With  the  commercial  plant,  most  of  the  products  are  sold  at 
wholesale  or  contracted  for  in  large  quantities,  so  that  a  near 
location  is  not  essential.  It  will  be  found,  by  looking  over  the 
extensive  poultry  sections  of  the  country,  that  the  exclusive  poultry 
farms  are  invariably  located  within  a  reasonable  shipping  distance 
of  one  or  more  of  the  large  cities  on  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  coast, 
or  near  the  thickly  populated  sections  of  the  Middle  States,  and 
sometimes  near  large  health  and  pleasure  resorts. 

The  idea  is  to  be  near  a  market  which  is  large  enough  to  avoid 
all  danger  of  a  surplus  supply  of  products. 

Not  only  must  markets  be  considered  with  reference  to  the 
adaptability  of  disposing  of  products,  but  a  constant  and  reliable 
source  of  supplies  and  feed  stuffs  should  be  within  easy  reach. 

Poultry  farms  in  the  Western  States  have  the  advantage  of 
cheap  land  and  cheap  grain.  These  factors,  combined  with  im- 
proved methods  of  transportation,  are  bringing  about  a  greater 
distribution  of  the  industry  than  ever  before.  In  the  past  it  has 
been  considered  more  economical  to  transport  grain  long  distances 
than  to  attempt  to  ship  eggs  so  far,  owing  to  the  poor  facilities 
offered  and  the  great  loss  in  transit. 

Poultry  keeping  is  a  business  which  adapts  itself  very  readily 
to  waste  land  or  unimproved  land.  Very  desirable  sites  may  often 
be  secured  within  easy  hauling  distance  of  a  large  market  for  very 
reasonable  considerations,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  land  is  not 
suited  to  other  branches  of  farm  enterprise.  Before  selecting  a 
location  this  question  should  receive  careful  consideration,  thus 
avoiding  a  mistake  at  the  very  outset. 

Rapid  Communication  and  Transportation. — It  is  essential  to 
keep  in  close  communication  with  the  purchaser,  whether  the 
location  be  at  a  considerable  distance  from  or  very  near  the  market. 
In  this  way  the  prices,  which  are  changing  daily,  can  be  deter- 
mined, and  the  products  disposed  of  at  a  time  when  the  best  returns 
will  be  realized.  During  frequent  fluctuations  of  the  market  this 
may  mean  a  saving  of  many  dollars.  It  is  desirable  to  keep  in- 
formed regarding  the  heeds  of  the  purchaser,  whether  he  be  the 
commission  merchant  or  the  consumer. 

If  one  has  these  facilities,  it  will  be  possible  to  save  much 
in  the  purchasing  of  feed  and  other  supplies  during  periods  of 
low  prices. 

There  are  many  times  when  some  machines  or  parts  of 
machines  need  repair,  and  much  time  can  often  be  saved  by 


FACTORS  IN  LOCATION  43 

making  a  quick  order  for  prompt  delivery.  This  is  especially 
true  in  incubation  and  brooding,  where  injury  to  the  heating 
equipment  may  be  quickly  repaired,  thus  saving  many  dollars 
from  loss  of  chicks  or  eggs. 

Means  of  Communication. — The  following  are  the  more  com- 
mon means  of  rapid  communication,  essential  for  the  satisfactory 
management  of  modern  poultry  plants  in  this  age  of  competition : 
(1)  Rural  free  mail  delivery,  (2)  local  telephone,  (3)  long-distance 
telephone  or  telegraph  connections. 

Not  only  does  the  presence  of  these  necessities  aid  in  facili- 
tating marketing,  but  farm  values  are  greatly  enhanced.  By 
free  mail  delivery  better  roads  are  induced.  These  make  it 
possible  for  the  farmer  to  be  much  more  prompt  in  all  business 
proceedings.  They  also  help  greatly  to  banish  isolation,  which 
formerly  was  one  of  the  greatest  disadvantages  of  all  the  many 
types  of  farming. 

Shipping  Facilities. — The  site  selected  should  be  not  far  from 
a  suitable  trolley  line  which  carries  freight,  or  a  railroad  freight 
and  express  depot.    The  neces- 
sity of  transporting  the  prod- 
ucts from  the  plant  to  the  con- 
sumer as  quickly  as  possible 
is  thus  met.     The  advantage 
to   be  derived  by  having  all 
purchased  feeds  and  supplies 

delivered    by    rail    Within    easy  FIG.  30.-Rural  trolley  express,  a  conven- 

and  quick  reach  of  the  plant     J5ntnmea.n8  of  marketing  poultry  products. 

Trolley  lines  are  near  many  poultry  plants. 

is  important.     Two  or  more     (Photo  by  Rhode  island  Co.) 
competing    lines    within  easy 

reach  are  to  be  desired,  as  a  guarantee  of  good  service  at  reason- 
able rates.  The  presence  of  good  roads  between  the  farm  and 
depot  should  be  sought,  as  the  character  of  the  load  hauled  is 
governed  by  the  poorest  place  in  the  whole  road.  The  presence  of 
an  interurban  trolley  system  leading  to  a  market  centre  is  espe- 
cially desirable,  owing  to  the  quickness  with  which  the  products 
can  be  sent  by  trolley  express  if  desired,  and  this  usually  with 
very  short  haul  at  either  end  (Fig.  30). 

All  poultry  products  are  of  such  a  perishable  nature  that  a 
long  haul  over  rough  roads  to  distant  markets  or  shipping  points 
will  so  handicap  the  poultryman  that  he  will  find  it  impossible  to 
compete  with  others  who  haVe  the  modern  advantages  outlined 


44  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION 

above;  hence  the  importance  of  considering  these  matters  care- 
fully before  selecting  a  location. 

Type  of  Poultry  Farming. — The  first  question  which  a  poultry- 
man  should  decide  is  the  type  of  farming  which  he  wishes  to  carry 
on,  and  then  find  a  location  suitable  for  this  purpose.  For  the 
farmer  already  located,  it  is  a  question  of  finding  a  type  which  is 
especially  suited  to  his  particular  location  as  regards  land  and 
market. 

The  following  may  be  termed  general  types  of  poultry  farming 
under  which  all  the  various  branches  will  fall,  each  requiring 
peculiar  conditions  when  considering  desirable  location:  Egg 
farming,  meat  farming,  and  fancy  poultry  farming. 

Market  Eggs. — In  any  branch  of  egg  farming,  especially  that 
of  market  eggs,  a  first-class  market  within  short  shipping  dis- 
tance is  essential  if  the  highest  price  is  to  be  received.  Every 
producer  of  market  eggs  should  try  to  build  up  a  demand  for 
strictly  fresh  eggs.  They  should  be  guaranteed  and  put  on  the 
market  when  they  are  not  over  three  or  four  days  old.  The  best 
price  can  be  received  by  shipping  each  day  if  the  output  will 
warrant  it.  This  requires  close  proximity  to  markets.  A  location 
directly  at  the  point  of  shipment  is  desirable,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  if  eggs  are  hauled  great  distances  over  rough  roads  the  con- 
stant jarring  tends  to  break  the  internal  membranes  and  spoil  the 
eggs  for  a  high-class  trade. 

Meat  Farming. — With  the  production  of  meat  entirely  different 
conditions  are  met,  the  most  noticeable  one  being  the  small  amount 
of  land  which  is  required  in  any  class  of  this  type.  On  a  piece  of 
land  containing  from  one  to  two  acres,  used  for  the  production 
of  market  broilers,  the  profits  during  one  year  may  be  many  thou- 
sands of  dollars;  providing  feed  and  eggs  for  hatching  are  pur- 
chased, as  is  generally  the  case.  For  the  production  of  capons 
or  roasters  more  land  is  required,  and  this  branch  is  best  suited  to 
farm  conditions,  where  the  birds  can  have  unobstructed  range  dur- 
ing the  developing  season.  Where  the  production  of  meat  is  made 
the  main  issue,  the  site  selected  must  be  near  the  point  of  con- 
sumption, so  that  the  shipments,  even  in  the  summer  months, 
will  arrive  at  the  consuming  point  with  but  one  icing;  otherwise 
they  must  be  sent  by  refrigerator  cars  and  an  extra  expense  entailed 
thereby. 

Fancy  Poultry  Farming. — In  the  rearing  of  fancy  poultry  or 
high-class  breeding  stock  a  great  latitude  of  choice  is  allowed  the 


FACTORS  IN  LOCATION 


45 


investor.  He  should  secure  conditions  which  will  guarantee  the 
best  development  of  the  fowls.  Then  the  markets  will  take  care 
of  themselves.  If  the  breeder  once  secures  good  stock  and,  by 
careful  breeding,  produces  a  winning  strain,  he  will  not  have  to 
hunt  for  markets.  There  are,  however,  Certain  locations  where 
high-class  birds  have  been  bred  for  a  longer  time  and  where  a 
greater  demand  has  developed.  In  such  places  a  market  is  much 
surer  for  the  beginner  with  small  investment.  He  will  be  aided 
in  selling  good  birds  by  the  reputation  of  the  locality.  He  must 
be  content  in  producing  for  local  market  at  first,  until  he  has  be- 
come expert  in  competition  with  breeders  of  established  reputa- 
tion. Another  point  to  be  considered  is  the  fact  that  many  of 


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FIG.  31. — System  of  poultry  farming.  No  fences  are  used  in  the  community  system. 
The  most  fencing  is  required  in  the  semi-community  system.  Most  labor  is  required  in-the 
colony  system. 

our  noted  breeders  are  compelled  to  sell  a  quantity  of  their  birds 
for  meat  at  market  prices.  A  suitable  location  with  respect  to 
this  is  an  advantage.  Where  markets  are  suitable,  it  is  often 
possible  to  combine  market  and  fancy  poultry  raising,  with  excel- 
lent results. 

Systems  of  Poultry  Farming. — The  common  systems  of  poultry 
keeping  which  have  given  success  in  all  parts  of  the  country  may 
be  classified  as  follows:  Community  system,  semi-community, 
and  colony  system  (Fig.  31). 

Community  system  is  a  term  applied  to  that  method  of  housing 
in  which  the  birds  are  confined  in  large  flocks  under  one  roof. 
The  poultry  houses  are  usually  of  the  long-house  type,  in  some 
cases  as  long  as  five  hundred  feet.  The  yards,  if  any,  run  to  the 
front,  and  in  some  instances  both  to  the  front  and  to  the  rear.  In 
this  system  1he  amount  of  land  required  is  relatively  small,  con- 


46  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION 

sidering  the  large  number  of  birds  kept.  It  is  well  adapted  to  egg 
farms  located  on  expensive  land  very  near  large  centres  of  popu- 
lation. The  birds  are  closely  confined  and  under  observation  at 
all  times.  The  disadvantages  are  danger  of  fire  and  of  disease, 
and  extra  expense  required  for  fencing.  This  type  of  long  house 
is  often  used  with  only  one  to  two  yards.  The  house  is  then  not 
divided  into  small  pens,  as  many  as  five  hundred  birds  being  kept 
in  one  flock  (Fig.  32). 

Semi-community  is  a  term  applied  to  plants  in  which  the  birds 
are  kept  in  smaller  units,  consisting  usually  of  single  or,  at  the 
most,  double  pen  houses  arranged  along  streets  or  roads  with  yards 
running  to  the  front  or  rear.  The  pens  are  from  twenty-five  to  one 


FIG.  32. — Large  community  house,  holding  five  hundred  birds. 

hundred  feet  apart,  depending  on  the  length  of  the  runs.  This 
type  requires  more  land  than  the  former  and  more  labor  to  attend. 
Advantages  are:  Giving  the  birds  much  more  room,  doing  away 
with  the  danger  of  fire,  and  reducing  the  risk  of  the  transmission 
of  disease. 

These  first  two  systems  are  suited  to  the  production  of 
market  eggs.  In  the  breeding  of  high-class  exhibition  and  fancy 
specimens,  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  keep  the  different  flocks 
separate.  The  semi-community  system  does  this  well.  It  is 
also  adapted  to  the  village  or  farm  flock  where  the  nearness 
of  a  neighbor  or  the  presence  of  some  crop  which  would  easily 
be  destroyed  makes  it  desirable  to  keep  them  securely  yarded 
(Fig.  33). 

Colony  system  is  a  term  applied  to  the  method  of  dividing  birds 
into  small  flocks  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  and  scattering  them  in 


FACTORS  IN  LOCATION 


47 


small  colony  houses  about  the  farm;  no  fencing  is  used;  the  birds 
have  free  range  at  all  times.    The  feeding  and  other  work  is  usually 


PIG.  33. — Semi-community  poultry  plant.  Hatching  and  brooding  buildings  in  back- 
ground, and  isolated  single-pen  and  double-pen  laying  houses  distributed  over  the  rest  of  the 
plant.  Roads  and  double  yarding  are  common  in  this  system. 

done  by  an  attendant  driving  around  from  coop  to  coop  with  a 
wagon.     This  system  is  adapted  to  low-priced  land  located  at 


FIG.  34. — Colony  houses  for  poultry  on  extensive  range.     The  house  in  the  foreground  shows 

cheap  construction. 

considerable  distance  from  cities;  it  can  be  used  to  excellent  ad- 
vantage on  waste  land,  such  as  brush  fields  or  rocky  wooded  hill- 
sides (Fig.  34).  It  is  suited  to  the  raising  of  roasters,  capons, 


48  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION 

and  turkeys  on  a  large  scale,  since  they  do  much  better  on  free 
range  and  the  cost  of  feed  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  cost  of 
labor  per  bird  is  usually  high  where  a  system  of  this  kind  is  em- 
ployed, but  by  the  use  of  wagons  or  feed  carts  it  should  not  be 
excessive. 

The  colony  system  works  out  to  very  good  advantage  in  com- 
bination with  other  branches  of  farm  work,  such  as  fruit  growing. 
The  colony  houses  may  be  scattered  among  the  trees,  thus  making 
the  same  land  produce  two  crops.  With  dairy  or  beef  farming, 
the  houses  may  be  scattered  about  the  permanent  pastures,  where 
they  can  be  easily  attended  and  do  no  damage. 

Climatic  and  Soil  Conditions. — Poultry  will  do  well  on  nearly 
all  kinds  of  soil  and  under  nearly  all  climatic  conditions.  But 
there  are  certain  soils  which  should  be  avoided,  or  expensive  means 
will  be  necessary  to  correct  them. 

Dry  air  should  always  be  chosen  for  a  site.  Along  the  banks 
or  valleys  of  large  streams  and  along  seashores  it  is  apt  to  be  too 
damp  during  the  winter  months  and  foggy  at  other  seasons.  Poul- 
try will  thrive  well  during  very  cold  weather,  providing  the  roosting 
quarters  are  kept  above  freezing.  Fowls  always  do  better  in  well- 
ventilated,  cool  houses  than  in  close,  stuffy,  damp,  warm  ones; 
the  latter  are  unsanitary.  Sudden  changes  in  weather  are  to  be 
avoided.  The  weather  record  for  many  years  back  should  be  con- 
sulted to  find  the  average  conditions  which  are  to  be  expected. 
The  prevailing  wind  direction,  its  velocity,  and  the  character  of 
weather  which  it  brings  should  be  determined. 

A  mild  climate  is  to  be  desired  rather  than  an  exceedingly  hot 
one.  The  most  southern  States  will  never  be  as  desirable  for 
poultry  keeping  as  the  more  northern  latitude,  say  above  35  de- 
grees, owing  to  the  extreme  heat  during  the  most  of  the  summer 
months.  Dampness  from  the  Gulf  Stream  is  a  drawback  for  the 
southeastern  States.  High  dry  areas  are  very  desirable,  one  of  the 
best  ones  in  the  country  being  the  central  plain  running  from 
Dakota  to  Texas.  Birds  of  maximum  size  can  be  more  easily  and 
cheaply  produced  in  this  section  than  in  any  other  region  of 
similar  extent  in  the  United  States.  With  the  perfection  of  cold- 
storage  systems  and  improved  means  of  transportation,  the  Central 
West  will  undoubtedly  some  day  be  the  poultry  centre  of  North 
America.  Especially  will  this  be  true  as  the  centres  of  population 
keep  moving  westward. 

The  type  of  soil  best  suited  for  poultry  keeping  is  a  sandy  loam. 


SITUATION  49 

It  should  be  friable  and  porous,  so  as  to  dry  up  quickly  after  a 
rain.  There  should  be  a  porous,  gravelly  subsoil,  which  insures 
perfect  underdrainage.  This  cleanses  the  yards  and  carries  manure 
into  the  soil  where  plants  and  grass  roots  can  use  it.  The  water 
table  should  be  so  low  that  in  no  place  moisture  appears  above 
the  surface,  even  by  the  presence  of  damp  soil  when  turned  over 
by  the  plow.  It  should  be  a  warm  soil,  and  if  warm  it  will  be  dry. 

The  runs  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  will  be  possible  to 
get  into  them  with  a  plow  to  turn  under  the  manure  and  cleanse 
them.  A  system  of  alternate  cropping  should  be  devised  to  utilize 
the  manure  which  is  voided  in  the  runs.  Green  feed  can  be  more 
easily  and  cheaply  supplied  in  this  way  than  in  any  other. 

A  heavy  muck  or  clay  soil  should  always  be  avoided,  as  poor 
results  are  sure  to  follow  its  use.  If  it  is  necessary  to  locate  on 


FIG.  35. — Ideal  location  for  poultry  farming.     Rolling  land  gives  good  drainage  and  proper 
air  circulation.      (Photo  by  Southern  Railway  Land  Department.) 

such  a  soil,  it  can  be  greatly  improved  by  tile  underdrains  and  by 
heavy  applications  of  lime.  If  the  area  is  small  it  can  be  much 
improved  by  mixing  sand  with  the  top  soil. 

Character  of  Country. — A  slightly  rolling  country  (Fig.  35)  is 
much  better  than  perfectly  level  stretches  or  an  extreme  moun- 
tainous section.  There  is  better  atmospheric  drainage  than  on 
level  sections,  and  much  less  liability  of  heavy  winds.  A  contour 
and  soil  map  of  the  country  under  study  or  observation  will  help 
greatly,  if  it  is  impossible  to  spend  the  desired  time  in  a  personal 
inspection.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  ground  be  gone  over 
thoroughly  by  the  prospective  investor  himself. 

Situation. — In  considering  the  matter  of  situation  the  important 
factors  which  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  are :  (1)  To  have 
the  conditions  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible  for  the  health  of  the 
4 


50  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION 

birds,  and  (2)  the  consideration  of  labor  and  time  required  in 
attendance.  This  should  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  point 
without  impairing  the  efficiency.  The  following  factors  should 
be  considered  carefully  in  reference  to  the  above  before  buildings 
are  started:  (1)  Size  and  shape  of  land;  (2)  soil  and  surface 
drainage;  (3)  slope  or  land  contour;  (4)  water  supply;  (5)  econ- 
omy of  time  and  labor;  (6)  arrangement  of  buildings;  (7)  an 
attractive  appearance  when  complete. 

Size  and  Shape  of  Land. — The  area  of  land  secured  will  largely 
influence  the  system  of  housing  and  yarding  which  will  be  followed. 
A  farm  of  forty  or  fifty  acres  will  allow  of  developing  an  immense 
business  on  the  colony  plan  as  well  as  giving  ample  space  for  grow- 
ing much  of  the  feed  at  home.  A  farm  of  four  or  five  acres  will 
take  care  of  approximately  1,000  layers  on  a  very  intensive  com- 
munity basis,  and  provide  range  for  raising  the  young  chicks.  No- 
feed  except  pasture  can  be  grown  on  such  a  small  area. 

If  possible  some  land  on  the  place  should  be  in  trees,  preferably 
fruit  trees,  so  as  to  have  shade  available.  Artificial  shade  can  be 
constructed,  but  it  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  cool,  moist  shade 
provided  by  growing  trees. 

The  shape  of  the  farm  is  an  important  factor.  A  square  lot  of 
land  has  the  following  advantages  over  a  long  rectangular  one. 

1.  If  the  area  is  large  it  is  better  to  place  the  buildings  in 
the  centre  near  the  dwelling  house  and  work  the  farm  all  ways 
from  this  central  location,  thus  saving  much  time  which  would 
be  spent  in  going  long  distances  many  times  a  day  to  do  the  work, 
as  is  required  when  the  farm  is  narrow  and  the  buildings  located 
at  one  end. 

2.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  have  all  the  flock  constantly 
under  the  eye  of  the  attendant  when  they  are  too  scattered;  the 
danger  from  loss  by  hawks  and  thieves  of  all  kinds  is  apt  to  be 
much  greater. 

3.  If  the  plant  can  be  planned  to  have  the  runs  arranged  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  form  of  squares,  the  cost  for  fencing  and 
posts  will  be  less  and  the  amount  of  green  feed  grown  in  them  will 
last  much  longer  than  in  the  long  narrow  yards. 

'  Soil  and  Surface  Drainage. — The  particular  site  selected  for  the 
houses  and  runs  must,  above  all  else,  be  perfectly  dry,  and  if  not 
naturally  drained  it  should  be  underdrained.  A  wet  soil  is  usually 
cold,  owing  to  the  exclusion  of  warm  air  and  to  the  temperature 
being  lowered  by  evaporation.  Wet  soils  are  unhealthy,  as  there 


SITUATION 


51 


is  no  sunlight  or  air  entering  to  purify  them;  and  many  of  the  com- 
mon poultry  diseases  are  spread  by  this  one  improper  condition 
The  drainage,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  should  be  away  from 
the  poultry  house  and  not  toward  it  (Fig.  36).     This  applies 
especially  to  surface  drainage. 

After  heavy  showers  in  summer  or  during  melting  snows  in 
winter,  there  is  usually  a  heavy  surface  wash  on  sloping  land,  and 
the  buildings  should  be  arranged  to  be  out  of  line  with  it.  If  this 
is  impossible  artificial  means,  such  as  open  gutters,  should  be  so 
constructed  as  to  protect  the  buildings  from  such  water.  The 


FIG.  36. — Houses  and  yards  on  a  hillside,  giving  good  drainage. 

presence  of  grass  about  the  houses  and  in  the  runs  tends  to  stop 
the  surface  washing  and  should  be  encouraged.  Hillsides  which 
are  exceptionally  springy  should  be  avoided,  as  it  is  then  almost 
impossible  to  secure  dry  soil  conditions.  This  makes  the  houses 
and  fence  posts  rot  away  quickly  if  great  care  is  not  used  in  their 
construction.  It  also  makes  wet  conditions  underfoot  for  both 
poultryman  and  birds.  Wet  soil  gives  the  hens  wet,  dirty  feet, 
making  clean  eggs  impossible;  and  clean  eggs  are  one  of  the 
requisites  of  a  guaranteed  trade. 

Slope  or  Land  Contour. — Air  drainage  is  very  essential,  and 
atmospheric  conditions  should  be  studied  before  making  the  selec- 
tion. Air  at  all  times  contains  moisture.  When  there  are  no  gen- 
eral winds  the  air  is  always  acted  upon  by  gravity.  The  cool, 


52  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION 

moist  air  flows  down  the  slopes  and  settles  in  valleys,  swamps, 
and  low  places.  Thus,  a  rolling  country  is  most  desirable,  and 
the  plant  should  be  placed  on  high  ground  with  a  slight  slope.  A 
swampy  place  should  be  avoided,  not  only  from  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  constant  stream  of  damp  air  falling  into  it,  but  it  is 
also  the  natural  catch  basin  for  all  surface  drainage  from  the 
higher  land  around.  In  nearly  every  case  of  this  kind  it  will  be 
impossible  to  drain  or  put  it  in  proper  condition  for  health  of  the 
flock. 

A  southerly,  southeasterly,  or  southwesterly  slope  is  the  best 
for  the  more  northern  parts  of  the  country.  If  the  prevailing 
wind  is  westerly,  a  southeastern  slope  is  the  one  desired.  In  gen- 
eral, the  morning  sun  directly  in  the  house  is  the  best.  It  is  not  a 
good  policy  to  place  the  house  on  the  very  crest  of  a  hill,  as  there 
is  usually  not  sufficient  protection  against  the  northern  winds  in 
winter.  If  the  house  is  placed  on  the  south  side  just  over  the  crest, 
the  air  currents  from  the  north  are  deflected  up  and  over  the  house, 
thus  making  it  much  warmer  and  of  a  much  evener  temperature 
at  all  times.  Forest  growths  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the 
farm  shut  out  much  of  the  undesirable  wind. 

A  southern  slope  has  the  great  advantage  of  receiving  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  is  thus  much  warmer,  due  to  the  radia- 
tion thus  secured.  A  moderate  slope  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  very 
steep  one.  With  steep  slopes  there  is  great  washing  and  gullying 
during  heavy  rains.  The  labor  of  carrying  feed  and  attending  to 
the  flock,  if  a  large  one,  is  greatly  increased  by  going  up  and  down 
steep  grades. 

Water  Supply. — Stagnant  waters  about  the  poultry  farm  are 
very  undesirable,  but  a  constant  supply  of  fresh,  pure  water  for 
drinking  purposes  is  a  great  asset  to  any  plant.  A  satisfactory 
supply  of  water  may  be  attained  by  any  of  the  following  methods, 
which  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  value : 

1.  A  perpetual  stream  of  running  water  through  the  farm, 
which  not  only  acts  as  a  source  of  pure  water  but  aids  perfect  soil 
and  surface  drainage.     This  method  is  most  economical,  and  is 
desirable  where  the  colony  system  is  used.    Where  the  birds  are 
kept  by  the  community  plan,  a  large  number  in  small  runs,  it  is 
not  advisable  to  have  a  brook  running  through  the  yards,  due  to 
the  danger  of  contamination.    , 

2.  It  is  often  possible  to  dam  such  a  stream  to  form  a  head 
of  water  on  elevated  ground  not  far  from  the  plant,  so  that 


SITUATION  53 

a  small  reservoir  may  be  formed  and  pipes  run  to  the  desired 
points  of  distribution. 

3.  The  presence  of  a  never-failing  spring  at  some  elevated 
position  may  be  utilized  in  the  same  way,  there  being  no  power 
required  for  distribution. 

4.  If  the  source  of  water  supply  is  below  the  level  of  the  plant, 
the  water  can  be  elevated  to  standpipes  or  reservoirs  in  any  of 
the  following  ways:     Hydraulic  rams,  gasoline  engines,  water- 
wheels,  or  windmills. 

5.  The  use  of  a  driven  well  and  compression  storage  tank 
operated  by  gasoline  engine  will  be  found  an  efficient  and  economi- 
cal method  of  furnishing  water  where  natural  sources  are  absent. 

The  one  point  of  most  importance  in  laying  out  a  water  sys- 
tem is  to  take  the  water  from  above  the  plant  and  carry  the  waste 
water  below,  thus  doing  away  with  contamination.  The  more 
naturally  this  system  can  be  brought  about,  the  more  desirable  is 
the  location,  as  a  greater  economy  in  labor  is  secured. 

Economy  of  Time  and  Labor. — The  poultry  plant,  whether 
large  or  small,  should  be  laid  out  with  the  idea  of  saving  steps. 
The  greatest  saving  in  this  respect  can  be  made  by  care  in  planning 
the  location  of  the  buildings.  The  main  building  should  be  cen- 
trally located.  It  usually  contains  a  feed  room  and  general  work- 
room, as  for  fattening,  killing,  and  picking.  The  incubation  and 
brooding  equipment  and  the  laying  houses  should  be  so  placed  in 
relation  to  the  main  building  that  the  entire  round  of  work  can  be 
done  without  retracing  steps  and  with  the  shortest  distance  pos- 
sible. Chick  ranges  should  be  located  as  near  the  centre  of  the 
plant  as  practicable,  as  the  birds  require  feeding  much  oftener 
when  young. 

A  good  system  of  roads  and  paths  should  be  constructed 
so  as  to  be  dry  at  all  times;  nothing  is  more  disagreeable  than  a 
muddy  walk.  These  should  be  in  direct  communication  with  the 
public  highway. 

The  two  heaviest  expenses  in  connection  with  egg  production 
are  feed  and  labor;  the  latter  can  be  materially  reduced  by  care 
in  planning  the  plant. 

Arrangement  of  Buildings. — The  direction  of  the  most  objec- 
tionable winds  should  be  studied,  and  the  buildings  so  arranged 
that  the  back  or  low  portion  is  toward  the  strongest  wind.  If  it 
is  north  or  west,  all  windows,  doors,  and  yards  should  be  in  the 
front,  which  would  be  protected  by  the  building  itself.  If  no 


54  LOCATION  AND  SITUATION 

natural  windbreaks  are  present,  it  is  advisable  to  make  plantings 
of  hardy  evergreens  near  the  different  houses  to  break  the  force 
of  strong  winds.  The  buildings  for  housing  the  birds  should  be  so 
located  as  to  receive  the  early  morning  sun,  and  the  windows  so 
placed  that  sun  will  shine  directly  into  them  during  the  entire  day. 
During  some  part  of  the  day  the  sun  should  strike  every  part  with 
which  the  birds  come  in  contact. 

An  Attractive  Appearance  when  Complete. — The  general  ar- 
rangement and  grouping  of  the  buildings  should  be  such  as  will 
give  a  pleasing  appearance  to  the  place  as  a  whole  when  complete. 
The  general  shape  and  character  of  all  structures  should  harmo- 
nize when  finished.  The  largest  and  most  attractive  buildings 
should  be  placed  in  the  most  conspicuous  place,  usually  nearest 
the  highway,  where  they  will  give  a  solid  appearance  to  the  passer- 
by. Usually  they  will  be  more  conveniently  located  in  such  a 
position.  In  a  fancy  or  high-class  breeding  plant,  and  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  on  any  kind  of  a  poultry  farm,  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  plant  as  a  whole  will  serve  as  advertising.  If  the  indi- 
vidual buildings  and  the  group  are  neat  and  attractive  in  appear- 
ance, the  natural  supposition  is  that  care  and  skill  are  exercised 
in  the  handling  and  breeding  of  stock. 

Adapting  Business  to  Conditions. — The  farmer  or  poultryman 
who  began  in  a  small  way  and  has  developed  his  business  to  a 
large  magnitude  cannot  now  reconsider  location.  His  present 
location  represents  a  large  investment  which  it  is  impossible  in 
most  cases  to  move.  Future  growth  and  development  must  be 
adapted  to  the  present  conditions.  It  is  more  a  question  of  what 
branch  of  the  business  will  be  best  suited  to  the  present  location. 

The  preceding  paragraphs  in  regard  to  location  will  help  persons 
so  located  to  select  that  branch  best  suited  to  their  circumstances. 
It  is  only  to  the  poultryman  who  is  starting  an  entirely  new  enter- 
prise or  the  one  who  has  decided  to  move  to  a  more  ideal  location 
before  greatly  increasing  his  plant  that  the  items  of  location  are 
important.  In  most  instances  it  is  a  case  of  meeting  present 
market  requirements  rather  than  moving  to  others.  For  instance, 
the  production  of  market  poultry  combined  with  egg  production 
is  found  to  suit  market  conditions  in  some  sections  and  pay  the 
greatest  return.  In  other  sections  the  large  markets  may  demand 
broilers,  or  in  many  cases  a  premium  is  offered  for  ducks.  In 
either  instance  development  should  be  along  the  lines  required,  to 
the  extent  which  the  poultryman's  capital  and  skill  will  warrant. 


REVIEW  55 

The  system  of  housing  will  also  be  governed  by  the  amount 
and  character  of  land  available  on  the  present  location.  The  several 
paragraphs  regarding  the  three  systems  of  housing  already  given 
in  this  chapter  should  be  reread  by  the  student  with  this  type  of 
poultryman  in  mind. 

A  general  knowledge  of  the  whole  subject  of  poultry  is  neces- 
sary before  one  can  make  a  wise  selection.  One  who  already  has 
a  farm  can  usually  find  at  least  one  or  more  branches  of  the  busi- 
ness which  will  work  out  under  his  conditions.  Those  factors 
which  are  not  desirable  can  be  eliminated  or  corrected,  as  drain- 
age and  windbreaks.  In  most  cases  the  problem  is  one  of  situation 
rather  than  one  of  location. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Define  the  terms  "location"  and  "situation." 

2.  Discuss  location  with  reference  to  markets. 

3.  What  are  the  essentials  in  rapid  communication  and  transportation? 

4.  What  is  the  influence  of  type  of  poultry  farming  upon  location? 

5.  Enumerate  and  define  the  three  systems  of  poultry  farming. 

6.  Discuss  location  with  reference  to  soil  conditions. 

7.  What  climate  and  character  of  country  are  best  adapted  to  poultry  keeping? 

8.  How  will  the  size  and  shape  of  the  farm  affect  the  situation  of  the  plant? 

9.  Why  is  there  need  of  good  soil  drainage  and  surface  drainage? 

10.  W^hat  is  meant  by  atmospheric  drainage? 

1 1 .  Why  should  the  poultry  plant  be  situated  on  a  southern  slope? 

12.  Give  in  their  order  of  efficiency  the  possible  sources  of  water  supply. 

13.  What  is  the  direct  value  of  having  the  plant  systematically  arranged? 

14.  W^hat  is  the  value  of  an  attractive  plant? 

15.  Do  you  consider  it  advisable  to  attempt  to  adapt  business  to  location  and 

other  circumstances?    Under  what  conditions? 


CHAPTER  III. 

MAKING  A  SUCCESSFUL  START. 

A  Modest  Beginning. — With  every  business  enterprise,  a  suc- 
cessful beginning — that  is,  organizing  and  planning  the  character 
and  scope  of  the  work  to  be  followed — is  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Ultimate  success  will  depend  largely  on  the  method  of  making  the 
start.  A  modest  beginning  is  likely  to  bring  good  results  in  much 
quicker  time  than  a  start  on  a  larger  scale.  The  tendency  too 
often  is  for  the  beginner  to  lay  a  foundation  beyond  his  experience. 
Many  mistakes  and  great  disappointments  can  be  avoided  by 
taking  a  little  longer  time  for  development  and  to  allow  the  busi- 
ness to  rest  on  safe  and  sure  principles.  Such  a  course  is  better 
than  to  begin  with  the  handicap  of  too  much  stock  and  too  little 
experience. 

Mistakes  are  made  by  those  who  have  had  years  of  experience, 
as  well  as  by  the  amateur.  Many  instances  might  be  cited  wherein 
poultry  keepers,  even  with  years  of  experience,  have  taken  false 
steps  in  the  way  of  increasing  their  plants,  in  changing  their 
methods,  or  in  reorganization.  Such  examples  tend  to  prove  the 
advisability  of  a  modest  start,  followed  by  normal  development 
each  year  until  the  maximum  efficiency  of  the  plant  is  reached. 
This  point  will  vary  with  different  poultry  keepers  and  in  different 
locations  even  under  the  same  methods  of  management.  So  many 
factors  are  to  be  considered  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  foretell 
the  exact  extent  to  which  a  business  can  be  safely  developed  until 
careful  trials  and  comparisons  have  been  made. 

Importance  of  Personality. — Both  experience  and  training  are 
essential;  but  another  factor  which  overreaches  either  of  them  in 
the  matter  of  insuring  success  is  the  personality  of  the  poultryman 
himself.  In  other  words,  he  must  be  sure  of  himself  first.  He 
must  submit  to  a  careful  self-examination  and  analyze  his  own 
feelings  and  manner  of  living  and  thinking  in  order  to  know  whether 
he  is  suited  to  his  chosen  work.  The  first  requisite  is  to  have  a 
personal  liking  for  the  business;  and  if  his  ancestors  have  been 
lovers  of  the  work  and  have  succeeded  in  it,  so  much  the  better. 
If  this  analysis  shows  factors  which  would  tend  to  hinder  him, 
the  step  should  by  all  means  be  avoided.  There  is  perhaps  no 
56 


LEARNING  THE  POULTRY  BUSINESS  57 

other  business  which  requires  more  unremitting  attention  to  de 
tails  and  conscientious  thought  and  action  than  poultry  keeping. 

The  following  qualities  are  to  be  looked  for  in  a  successful 
poultryman : 

The  first  requisite  is  that  of  sound  common  sense.  Many  in- 
stances will  arise  where  no  previous  action  or  condition  can  guide, 
and  where  quick,  correct  decisions  will  mean  the  avoidance  of 
disaster. 

He  must  also  be  capable  of  planning  well  and  carefully  so  as 
to  figure  probable  success  and  failure  very  minutely. 

Not  only  must  he  plan  well,  but  he  must  execute  completely, 
for  one  requisite  without  the  other  means  nothing. 

He  should  be  methodical,  so  as  to  develop  a  careful  system  in 
all  the  details  of  the  work. 

He  must  be  alert,  capable  of  seeing  an  opportunity  when  it  offers. 

These  qualities  should  be  combined  with  sagacity  and  shrewd- 
ness, especially  in  the  marketing  end  of  the  enterprise.  He  should 
have  steadfastness  of  purpose,— that  is,  he  should  not  be  change- 
able. This  is  important  in  the  poultry  business,  because  there 
are  so  many  varying  beliefs  and  systems  in  the  different  operations 
of  hatching  and  rearing.  If  the  poultry  keeper  is  not  sure  of  his 
own  method,  he  will  succeed  at  none. 

Lastly,  he  must  be  capable  of  concentrating  his  time  and  atten- 
tion on  the  work.  He  must  have  system  in  all  the  details;  and  he 
must  carry  their  essentials  constantly  in  mind,  as  in  this  way  only 
can  he  be  sure  that  nothing  is  neglected. 

Learning  the  Poultry  Business. — A  person  desiring  to  learn  the 
poultry  business  to-day  has  many  advantages  which  formerly 
could  not  be  realized.  Among  the  greatest  of  these  are  the  results 
of  accumulated  experience.  The  opportunities  for  knowledge 
available  to  the  average  amateur  who  wishes  to  become  versed 
in  the  details  and  requirements  of  poultry  keeping  may  be  grouped 
under  one  of  the  following  heads :  (1)  Farm  experience,  (2)  prac- 
tical work  at  large  poultry  plants,  (3)  personal  observation, 
(4)  reading  of  papers  and  books,  (5)  scientific  and  practical  train- 
ing in  college  or  school.  *• 

For  the  poultryman  to  realize  a  combination  of  all  these 
opportunities  would  be  very  desirable.  At  least  two  of  them 
should  always  go  together, — namely,  the  actual  farm  or  poultry  ex- 
perience and  as  much  scientific  and  systematic  training  as  possible. 

A  young  man  who  has  had  the  advantage  of  being  brought 


58  MAKING  A  SUCCESSFUL  START 

up  on  a  farm  has  the  training  which  gives  him  a  general  idea  of  the 
subject  in  a  practical  way.  If  he  desires  to  pursue  poultry  keeping 
on  an  extensive  scale,  he  should  spend  at  least  one  season  at  some 
large  commercial  plant,  so  that  he  may  become  familiar  with  the 
planning  and  execution  of  the  work  under  the  right  conditions. 
If  he  intends  to  devote  some  time  to  a  scientific  study  of  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  advisable  to  acquire  the  practical  experience  first,  as 
he  will  thus  get  more  out  of  the  advanced  training. 

To  any  poultry  keeper,  whether  old  or  young,  experienced  or 
inexperienced,  the  poultry  press  offers  a  fine  field  for  the  study 
and  expression  of  ideas  and  teachings.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
brought  about  by  the  constantly  changing  conditions.  No  mattQr 
in  which  of  the  various  ways  he  acquires  his  experience  and  train- 
ing, if  he  is  able  to  apply  the  factor  of  personal  observation  and 
to  deduce  therefrom  correct  principles,  the  learner  is  well  on  the 
road  to  success. 

Land,  Labor,  and  Capital. — Success  in  any  branch  of  agricul- 
ture is  dependent  largely  on  the  proper  adjustment  of  three  eco- 
nomic factors, — land,  labor,  and  capital.  The  poultryman's 
capital  may  be  considered  as  either  fixed  or  circulating. 

Fixed  capital  is  the  term  applied  to  investment  in  permanent 
equipment,  as  land,  buildings,  teams,  appliances,  tools,  and 
machinery — things  which  are  constantly  used  in  production. 

Circulating  capital  is  limited  to  that  which  is  consumed  in  the 
process  of  production,  and  which  is  being  used  up  and  replaced 
by  material  of  the  same  kind,  or  which  having  been  returned  is 
being  reinvested.  It  is  this  form  of  capital  which  is  constantly 
changing,  each  time  coming  back  with  increase,  provided  the 
business  is  conducted  at  a  profit. 

The  Poultryman's  Capital. — The  following  classification  may 
serve  to  illustrate: 

1.  Fixed  capital  or  permanent  investment: 

(a)  Land:  Natural  value  plus  all  permanent  improvements,  such  as 
roads,  fences,  wells,  drains,  and  orchards. 

(6)  Buildings:  Dwelling;  farm  buildings,  as  barn;  poultry  buildings,  as 
henhouses,  feed  houses,  and  incubator  cellar;  building  equipment  which  is  a 
permanent  part  of  the  building,  or  fixtures. 

(c)  Equipment:  Team;  implements  for  working  the  land;  incubators  and 
brooders;  fowls  which  are  used  in  production — excluding  young  birds  and 
birds  grown  for  meat  only. 

2.  Circulating  capital: 

Feed,  seeds,  and  miscellaneous  supplies;  market  eggs  or  live  poultry  grow- 
ing or  unsold;  money  on  hand  which  is  required  to  pay  labor  and  carry  on  the 
business. 


LAND,  LABOR  AND  CAPITAL  59 

The  proper  adjustment  of  capital  depends  largely  on  the  type 
of  poultry  farm,  the  character  of  the  market,  and  the  personality 
of  the  poultryman  himself.  In  working  out  the  problem  of  adjust- 
ment it  must  always  be  remembered  that  production  is  limited 
by  the  minimum  of  any  one  of  three  factors.  With  a  small  area 
of  land,  production  cannot  be  large,  no  matter  how  much  capital 
and  labor  one  may  have  at  his  disposal.  With  a  scarcity  of  suitable 
labor  a  large  investment  in  land  and  equipment  means  little. 
Likewise  an  abundance  of  land  and  labor  without  suitable  buildings 
and  equipment  will  bring  poor  results. 

In  deciding  on  the  proportion  of  the  original  fund  to  invest 
as  fixed  capital  and  that  to  be  kept  for  running  the  plant,  no 
absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
many  failures  are  caused  by  an  overcapitalization  at  the  start. 
One-half  in  fixed  capital  is  perhaps  a  safe  rule  for  the  beginner, 
leaving  one-half  for  the  running  expenses  of  the  enterprise.  This 
should  be  kept  constantly  on  the  move,  and  each  time  it  should 
come  back  with  increase.  After  the  business  has  become  well 
established,  it  may  be  found  profitable  to  increase  the  fixed  capital 
so  as  to  make  a  larger  production  possible,  and  it  can  be  more 
safely  done  at  that  time. 

As  the  business  increases  in  size  and  efficiency  the  proportionate 
investment  in  circulating  capital  will  grow  as  a  natural  consequence, 
carrying  with  it  greater  profits. 

Land  is  a  special  form  of  capital.  It  is  a  natural  agent,  limited 
in  extent.  A  considerable  area  of  land  is  to  be  desired  for  the  best 
results  on  a  poultry  farm.  If  sufficient  land  is  available,  it  will 
be  possible  to  give  the  birds  an  abundance  of  room  for  range  and 
in  that  way  keep  the  ground  clean  and  free  from  disease  and  gen- 
eral disorders.  There  is  little  danger  of  having  too  much  land.  If 
there  is  an  abundance  of  land,  the  farm  can  be  so  planned  that  a 
large  proportion,  if  not  the  entire  supply,  of  grain  can  be  grown  at 
home.  The  feed  bill  is  the  poultryman's  greatest  expense  and  calls 
for  a  large  reserve  in  circulating  capital.  With  the  increasing 
prices  for  cereal  feed-,  the  more  of  it  that  can  be  grown  at  home 
the  better. 

A  mistake  too  often  made  is  that  of  hiring  and  developing  a  large 
business  on.  land  which  is  not  owned  by  the  poultryman.  This 
arrangement  is  almost  sure  to  be  unfortunate.  The  erection  of 
buildings  on  hired  land  is  always  a  direct  loss,  if  they  are  of  a 
permanent  nature.  They  become  a  part  of  the  property  and  can 


60  MAKING  A  SUCCESSFUL  START 

not  be  taken  away.  Then  there  is  the  danger  of  having  to  move 
at  any  time,  unless  a  lease  is  held.  Even  a  long  lease  has  dis- 
advantages. A  maximum  profit  cannot  be  realized  except  when 
the  farm  itself  is  owned  by  the  pouliryman,  enabling  him  to  plan 
his  rotations  and  development  with  a  definite  scheme  of  growth 
in  mind. 

The  investment  in  buildings  should  be  limited  to  the  economical 
and  safe  housing  of  the  live  stock  on  the  plant.  The  cost,  varying 
in  different  sections  of  the  country,  will  depend  on  climatic  con- 
ditions and  the  cost  of  building  material.  Expensive  buildings 
are  undesirable,  requiring  a  large  first  investment  and  tying  up 
too  much  of  the  capital  in  the  beginning.  The  interest  on  the 
investment  is  an  important  item,  and  the  cost  of  repairs  is  usually 
much  more. 

Any  equipment,  such  as  a  windmill  or  engine,  if  in  accord  with 
the  size  and  character  of  the  plant,  has  a  definite  economic  value 
in  being  a  great  labor  saver  and  a  constant  source  of  indirect 
revenue.  An  undercapitalization  in  equipment  means  a  high 
cost  and  limited  amount  of  products,  which  will,  of  necessity, 
greatly  lower  the  profits.  In  choosing  an  equipment,  durability 
rather  than  first  cost  should  be  considered.  In  purchasing  sup- 
plies, such  as  incubators  and  brooders,  the  most  satisfactory 
results  are  generally  realized  by  obtaining  reliable,  tested  appa- 
ratus, even  though  the  first  cost  be  greater. 

Labor. — The  character  and  amount  of  labor  must  be  governed 
largely  by  local  conditions,  and  it  will  always  be  found  that  this 
factor  usually  decides,  more  than  any  other,  the  degree  of  success 
in  poultry  endeavors.  The  average  investor,  if  wise,  will  usually 
start  with  his  own  labor  only,  and  later  increase  the  magnitude 
of  operations  enough  to  warrant  hiring  outside  help  if  considered 
expedient.  This  way  is  slower  but  much  surer.  In  all  branches 
of  poultry  work  there  is  a  great  chance  for  brains  to  replace  labor 
to  a  large  extent.  The  idea  should  always  be  to  reduce  labor  to 
the  minimum  by  the  use  of  such  labor-saving  devices  as  are  effi- 
cient and  which  do  not  tend  to  eliminate  the  personal  factor. 

System  for  Beginners. — For  most  persons  starting  with  small 
investments,  either  in  capital  or  experience,  the  colony  system, 
wherein  the  birds  are  kept  in  small  flocks  scattered  over  consider- 
able areas,  will  be  the  best  and  surest  way.  This  requires  the 
smallest  possible  investment  in  fixed  capital,  and  will^ive  a  maxi- 
mum production  with  the  least  amount  of  scientific  care  and 


TO  ACHIEVE  SUCCESS  61 

attention.  Later  on,  if  found  desirable,  the  business  may  be  in- 
tensified and  the  method  of  management  changed  to  meet  changed 
conditions. 

Time  to  Start.— For  the  production  of  market  eggs  the  best 
time  to  begin  actual  operations  will  be  with  the  spring  hatching. 
The  houses  may  be  built  during  the  summer  and  made  ready  for 
the  mature  pullets  in  the  fall.  This  will  give  good  results  in  the 
least  possible  time.  When  it  is  desirable  to  start  with  adult  birds 
for  egg  production,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  houses  built 
during  the  fall  and  winter  and  have  the  birds  in  them  by  January, 
so  that  they  can  be  fed  and  cared  for  at  least  two  months  before 
the  eggs  are  saved  for  hatching. 

Where  market  broilers  are  the  object,  the  incubator  and  brooder 
houses  should  be  completed  by  the  first  of  September,  so  that  the 
first  hatches  can  be  accommodated  by  that  time.  The  broilers 
may  then  be  ready  by  Thanksgiving  time,  which  is  the  opening 
of  the  broiler  season. 

All  things  considered,  the  spring  of  the  year  will  generally 
be  the  best  time  to  start,  as  the  birds  can  be  cared  for  during  the 
summer  much  easier  than  during  the  winter.  It  is  cheaper  to 
hatch  and  rear  young  birds  than  to  purchase  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  adults.  The  buyer  of  adults  is  not  always  sure  of  getting 
good  layers.  The  purchase  of  a  few  adults  of  known  ancestry  and 
good  breeding  is  the  safest  way  to  start.  Their  eggs  may  be 
hatched  and  a  good  strain  built  up  in  that  way. 

To  Achieve  Success. — A  small  beginning,  with  from  200  to 
500  birds,  in  connection  with  some  other  branch  of  farm  work, 
from  which  the  support  of  the  family  can  come,  may  develop  in 
a  few  years  into  a  sound  and  profitable  business.  The  growth  of 
the  work  each  year  can  be  governed  by  the  success  attained,  by 
allowing  the  profits  to  pay  for  each  yearly  increase.  This  method, 
combined  with  as  much  previous  practical  training  as  possible, 
will  be  a  safe  guarantee  of  success  and  will  afford  a  pleasant  occu- 
pation to  any  prospective  poultryman. 

Hindrances  to  Success. — The  three  main  causes  of  failure  are 
the  following:  (1)  A  wrong  personality  of  the  poultryman  him- 
self, in  not  being  suited  either  mentally  or  physically  to  the  work. 
(2)  Next  in  importance  is  the  nonattention  to  details,  or  leaving 
them  to  others  whose  interest  is  not  what  it  should  be.  (3)  Start- 
ing with  weak,  impure,  or  poorly  bred  birds.  This  last  factor  seri- 
ously needs  to  be  considered,  and  it  will  pay  the  purchaser  well 


62  MAKING  A  SUCCESSFUL  START 

to  look  far  and  carefully  before  purchasing  the  adult  birds  which 
are  to  make  or  mar  his  whole  future. 

System  the  Key  Word. — The  one  point  above  all  others  which 
the  poultryman  must  be  sure  to  consider  is  the  absolute  necessity 
of  system  in  all  branches  of  his  work.  The  poultry  business,  which 
is  composed  .largely  of  definite  details,  requires  a  careful  systema- 
tizing, not  only  in  the  keeping  of  books  and  accounts,  but  in  all 
the  routine  work, — as,  feeding,  hatching,  brooding,  breeding,  and 
preparing  for  market.  The  work  can  be  done  much  more  easily 
and  cheaply  by  having  system;  it  can  be  done  each  time  with  the 
same  degree  of  care,  and  the  danger  of  overlooking  any  detail 
is  lessened.  The  three  stepping-stones  to  success  in  the  work  are 
system,  promptness,  and  energy. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Why  is  a  modest  beginning  to  be  desired? 

2.  Why  is  the  right  personality  so  essential  in  poultry  keeping? 

3.  Enumerate  the  qualities  of  a  successful  poultryman. 

4.  Name  four  ways  in  which  it  is  possible  to  learn  the  poultry  business. 

5.  What  are  the  three  business  principles  of  poultry  keeping? 

6.  Give  a  classification  of  a  poultryman' s  capital. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  fixed  and  by  circulating  capital? 

8.  In  what  respect  is  land  capital? 

9.  What  should  be  the  economic  limit  to  investment  in  buildings? 

10.  WThat  is  the  invariable  result  of  overcapitalization  at  the  start? 

11.  Discuss  the  economic  limitation  of  production  in  respect  to  capitalization. 

12.  How  is  the  colony  system  especially  adapted  to  the  small  investor? 

13.  What  influences  the  time  to  start  in  the  poultry  business? 

14.  What  is  the  safest  procedure  to  achieve  success? 

15.  .Enumerate  factors  which  tend  to  hinder  success. 

16.  What  is  the  value  of  system  in  all  operations? 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY. 

THE  breeds  and  varieties  of  poultry  are  so  numerous  and 
represent  so  many  mixed  characteristics  and  features  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  give  a  simple  complete  classification, 
allowing  each  breed  and  variety  its  legitimate  place.  A  practical 
classification,  in  order  to  be  of  any  definite  value,  must  consider 
economic  features  as  well  as  external  points  of  shape,  size,  and  color. 


FIG.  37. — Pair  of  jungle  fowl  (Gallus  bankiva),  one  of  the  ancestors  of  the  present 
domestic  breeds.  The  light,  active  breeds  resemble  this  ancestor.  (Photos  of  Figs.  37  and 
38  by  the  Station  of  Experimental  Evolution,  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  L.  I.) . 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  give  a  general  discussion 
of  the  breeds  of  poultry  as  we  know  them  to-day,  consider  the 
origin  of  the  domestic  breeds,  and  give  a  classification  of  them. 

Origin  of  the  Domestic  Fowl. — The  domestic  fowl  belongs  to 
a  group  of  scratching  birds  which  includes  turkeys,  guinea-fowls, 
pheasants,  partridges,  and  others.  The  progenitors  of  the  domes- 
tic hen  of  to-day  were  wild  species,  and  it  is  probable  that  it 
originated  from  the  crosses  or  mingling  of  the  blood  of  two  quite 
different  species,  the  most  important  one  being  the  wild  fowl 
common  in  the  jungles  of  India  and  Southern  China,  which  is 
known  as  Gallus  bankiva  (Fig.  37). 

The  jungle  fowl  is  about  one-third  the  size  of  the  domesticated 
one,  having  a  flattened  tail,  single  comb,  and  wattles  resembling 

63 


64 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


.  those  of  the  domestic  fowl.  The  female  is  much  smaller  and  has 
less  comb  and  wattles  than  the  male.  The  shanks  of  both  sexes 
are  willow  colored,  resembling  those  of  the  black-breasted  red 
game  fowl.  They  are  capable  of  considerable  flight,  but  in 
other  habits  resemble  to  a  great  extent  the  domestic  forms. 
Breeding  experiments  show  that  they  are  completely  fertile  with 
the  domestic  birds. 

The  reason  for  concluding  that  a  second  species,  other  than 
the  Gallus  bankiva,  was  present  in  the  evolution  of  the  present 
type  is  the  existence  of  characteristics  which  it  is  impossible  to 


FIG.  38. — A  pair  of  Aseel  fowls,  the  Malay  ancestor  of  domestic  birds.     The  heavy  mejit 
breeds  resemble  this  ancestor. 

breed  from  the  jungle  fowl  alone.  With  the  use  of  the  Aseel  or 
Malay  fowl  as  one  parent  (Fig.  38)  a  complete  ancestry  is  explained, 
and  an  intelligent  history  of  the  domestication  can  be  written. 
This  ancient  Aseel  fowl  is  now  practically  extinct,  but  was  undoubt- 
edly the  oldest  fowl  in  domestication,  having  been  bred  in  India 
3,000  years  ago.  These  Aseel  fowls  show  a  pea  comb,  stout  yellow 
legs,  a  stocky  body,  and  an  unwillingness  to  fly  high  in  the  air. 
These  characteristics  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  the 
bankiva  fowls,  which  are  so  prominent  in  our  heavier  breeds,  as 
Brahmas  and  Cochins. 

The  process  of  domestication  can  be  traced  from  about  1000 


PLACE  OF  POULTRY  IN  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM          65 

B.C.,  where  the  Institute  of  Menu  alludes  to  the  sport  of  cock- 
fighting,  which  was  probably  carried  on  with  the  Aseel.  From 
that  time  on  we  find  domestic  fowls  constantly  referred  to  in  early 
records,  and  their  improvement  was  consistent  with  the  advance 
in  civilization.  They  were  gradually  distributed  westward  and 
over  the  continent,  coming  into  Europe  from  Central  China  by 
way  of  Siberia  and  Russia,  They  were  carried  to  the  New  World 
early  in  the  period  of  colonization,  where  they  had  formerly  been 
entirely  unknown. 

Place  of  Poultry  in  the  Animal  Kingdom.— As  members  of 
Gallus  bankiva  are,  undoubtedly,  the  leading  ancestors  of  our 
domestic  breeds  of  to-day,  it  is  interesting  to  trace  the  place  which 
poultry  occupy  in  the  animal  kingdom  and  to  determine  their  rela- 
tion to  other  types  of  birds.  The  following  analysis  gives  in  an 
abbreviated  form  the  place  of  poultry  in  the  animal  kingdom : 

KINGDOM,  Animal. 

SERIES,  Metazoa:  consisting  of  animals  with  cellular  tissues  and 

true  eggs. 

BRANCH,  Vertebrata:  animals  having  an  internal  skeleton,  backbone, 

and  dorsal  nervous  cord  which  is  separated 
from  the  body  cavity;  circulation  complete; 
limbs  not  more  than  four. 

DIVISION  II,  Craniota:  animals  of  the  subkingdom  Vertebrata  having 

skull,  heart,  and  brain. 

PROVINCE  II,  Sauropsida:  Craniota  with  amnion  and  allantois;  no  gills; 

epidermal  scales  or  feathers. 

CLASS  IV,  Aves:  true  birds;  feathered;  four  limbs,  hind  pair  for 

progression  on  land  or  water,  front  pair  for 
flight;  no  teeth;  three  eyelids;  heart  with  four 
cavities;  lungs. 

SUBCLASS  II,  Carinatce:  birds  having  a  keel  or  breastbone  and  functional 

wings. 

ORDER  VI,  Rasores:  an  order  of  Carinatas  which  are  terrestrial  in  their 

habits,  having  short,  stout  legs,  suited  to 
scratching;  and  with  stout,  arched  beak  for 
seed  eating.  Gallus  is  a  true  representative  of 
this  order,  and  is  the  ancestor  of  our  domestic 
fowls. 

The  class  Aves,  or  birds,  represents  one  of  the  most  clearly 
defined  classes  of  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  having  a  great  many 
divisions  or  subclasses.  They  are  aquatic,  terrestrial,  and  aerial 
in  their  habits;  all  types,  however,  show  great  similarity  of  struc- 
ture. The  order  Rasores,  to  which  our  domestic  fowls  belong, 
contains  a  great  many  birds  which  are  very  valuable  to  man.  This 
order,  in  general,  is  characterized  by  short,  arched  beak;  short 
concave  wings,  unfit  for  extended  flight;  stout  legs  of  medium 
5 


66 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


length;  four  toes,  usually  three  in  front,  these  being  united  by  a 
short  web.  The  features  of  the  body  are  large  and  coarse  as  com- 
pared to  birds  of  flight.  The  males  have  brighter-colored  plumage 
than  the  females.  Their  main  feed  is  grain.  Common  represen- 
tatives of  this  order  are  domestic  chickens,  turkeys,  pheasants, 
partridges,  and  grouse. 

Two  Classifications  of  Poultry. — Two  general  classifications  of 
poultry  may  be  made :  First  is  the  so-called  standard  classification. 
A  book  on  this  is  edited  and  published  by  the  American  Poultry 
Association.  The  points  in  this  classification  are  intended  to 
guide  judges  and  breeders  of  exhibition  poultry.  The  book  does 
not  serve  as  a  practical  guide  to  the  economic  points  of  the  breeds. 
This  classification  is  based  primarily  upon  the  origin  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  breeds,  and  not  so  much  upon  their  economic  import- 
ance. In  a  great  many  cases  their  economic  possibilities  have 
been  the  direct  outgrowth  of  environment  at  their  place  of  origin. 

The  second  classification  might  be  termed  utility.  It  is  based 
on  the  economic  possibilities  which  the  different  breeds  offer  for 
market  purposes. 

Either  of  these  classifications  must  be  relatively  arbitrary. 
There  are  a  number  of  breeds  which  possess  characteristics,  any 
one  of  which,  considered  singly,  might  place  them  in  one  class  and 
then  in  another. 

STANDARD    CLASSIFICATION. 

The  standard  classification  of  domestic  poultry  includes  all 
classes,  representing  thirty-eight  different  breeds  which  contain 
109  varieties.  It  is  impossible  to  give  here  a  detailed  description 
of  each.  The  breeds  and  varieties  are  given  in  a  classified  form; 
this  is  followed  by  an  outline  of  their  historical  development  and 
distribution. 

Standard  Classification  of  Domestic  Fowls. 


Class  No.  and  name. 

1 .  American . . 


Breed. 
.  Plymouth  Rock : 

Wyandotte: 


Java: 

Dominique : 
Rhode  Island  Red: 
Buckeye : 

2.  Asiatic Brahma: 

Cochin : 
Langshan : 


Variety. 
Barred,  white,  buff,  silver  pencilled, 

partridge,  and  Columbian. 
Silver,  golden,  white,  buff,  black, 

partridge,    silver  pencilled,     and 

Columbian. 
Black  and  mottled. 
Rose  comb. 

Single  comb  and  rose  comb. 
Pea  comb. 
Light  and  dark. 

Buff,  partridge,  white,  and  black. 
Black  and  white. 


STANDARD  CLASSIFICATION 


67 


3.  Mediterranean..  .Leghorn: 


Minorca:  . 


4.  English. 


Spanish: 

Blue  Andalusian. 
Ancona. 
.  Dorking  : 
Redcap: 
Orpington : 


5.  Polish Polish: 


6.  Hamburg 


Hamburg : 


7.  French Houdan: 

Crevecceur: 
La  Fleche: 

8.  Game  and  Game 

Bantam. .       .  .Game: 


Game  Bantam: 


9.  Oriental. . 


10.  Ornamental 
Bantam. . 


.  Cornisji : 
Sumatra: 
Malay: 
Malay  Bantam: 

.  Seb  right : 
Rose  comb: 
Booted : 
Brahma: 
Cochin : 
Japanese: 
Polish: 


11.  Miscellaneous..  .  .Silkie: 
Sultan: 
Frizzle: 


Single-comb  brown,  rose-comb 
brown,  single-comb  white,  single- 
comb  buff,  rose-comb  buff,  single- 
comb  black,  and  silver. 

Single-comb  black,  rose-comb  black, 
and  single-comb  white. 

White-faced  black. 


White,  silver  gray,  and  colored. 

Rose  comb. 

Single-comb  buff,  single-comb  black, 

and  single-comb  white. 
White-crested       black,       bearded 

golden,   bearded  silver,   bearded 

white,    buff    laced,    nonbearded 

golden,   nonbearded    silver,    and 

nonbearded  white. 
Golden  spangled,   silver  spangled, 

golden  pencilled,  silver  pencilled, 

white,  and  black. 
Mottled. 
Black. 
Black. 

Black-breasted  red,  brown-red, 
golden  duckwing,  silver  duck- 
wing,  birchen,  red  pyle,  white, 
and  black. 

Black-breasted  red,  brown-red, 
golden  duckwing,  silver  duck- 
wing,  birchen,  red  pyle,  white, 
and  black. 

Dark,  white,  and  white-laced  reds 

Black. 

Black-breasted  red. 

Black-breasted  red. 

Golden  and  silver. 
White  and  black. 
White. 

Light  and  dark. 

Buff,  partridge,  white,  and  black. 
Black-tailed,  white  and  black. 
Bearded  white,  buff-laced,  and  non- 
bearded. 
White. 
White. 
Any  color. 


Classes  12,  13,  and  14  are  omitted  here,  as  they  include  ducks 
and  geese,  which  are  not  considered  in  this  volume.  All  students 
of  poultry  husbandry  should  secure  a  copy  of  the  "  American 
Standard  of  Perfection  "  and  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
details  and  requirements  of  the  breeds  as  outlined. 


O.b   FOUL  IKY 


STANDARD  CLASSIFICATION  69 

Terms  Explained. -It  should  be  noted  in  the  above  outline 
and  description  given  later  that  the  three  terms,  class,  breed  and 
variety,  are  used  with  distinctive  meanings. 

Class  is  used  to  include  the  larger  groups  of  birds.  The  classes 
relate  to  their  place  of  origin  or  their  natural  habitat,  as,  for  in- 
stance, American  class,  English  class,  French  class. 

Breed  is  used  almost  entirely  to  designate  body  shape  and 
form.  For  instance,  in  the  American  class  are  the  Plymouth  Rock, 
Wyandotte,  and  Rhode  Island  Red,  each  one  a  distinct  breed  and 
each  one  having  distinctive  body  shape  or  type.  The  Plymouth 


FIG.  40. — Buff  Orpington  pair,  a  popular  variety  of  this  English  breed.     (Photo  by  Suns- 
wick  Poultry  Farm.) 

Rocks5  bodies  are  represented  by  oval  curves,  the  Wyandottes' 
by  circular  curves,  and  the  Rhode  Island  Reds'  by  rectangles. 
This  difference  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  accompanying 
sketches  (Fig.  39). 

"  Breed  "  is  also  used  to  designate  both  shape  and  variety  color, 
yet  in  such  cases  the  proper  distinction  has  been  partially  over- 
looked. This  error  is  especially  pronounced  in  the  Orpington 
breed;  there  the  tendency  has  been  to  create  new  varieties  at  a 
sacrifice  of  shape,  it  being  quite  common  to  find  Buff  Orping- 
tons with  a  buff  color,  but  representing  anything  but  the 
Orpington  shape  (Fig.  40).  Another  example  is  among  White 


70 


•:• 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


Wyandottes.  There  are  many  white,  rose-comb  birds  commonly 
called  Wyandottes  which  possess  Plymouth  Rock  shape.  The 
aim  should  be  to  eliminate  this  fallacy  as  much  as  possible 
and  breed  true  to  body  shape  and  breed  type,  as  well  as  to 
variety  color. 

The  standard  weights  of  the  breeds  are  given  in  Table  III. 

TABLE  III.— Standard  Weights. 


Class. 

Cocks. 

Hens. 

Cockerels. 

Pullets. 

American  class: 
Plymouth  Rocks     

Pounds. 
§1A 

Pounds. 

ly* 

Pounds. 

8 

Pounds. 

6 

Wyandottes       

81A 

§y2 

71A 

5^2 

Javas        

$1A 

71A 

8 

§1A 

Dominiques  

5 

6 

4 

Rhode  Island  Reds  
Buckeyes  

&A 
9 

VA 

6 

7^ 
8 

5 
5 

Asiatic  class: 
Brahmas 

12 

$1A 

10 

8 

Cochins  

11 

9^2 

9 

7 

Langshans 

93^ 

71A 

8 

6U 

Mediterranean  class: 
Minorcas 

9 

11A 

7K 

6K 

Spanish 

8 

61A 

§y> 

514 

Blue  Andalusians 

6 

5 

5 

4 

English  class: 
Dorkings                              

7^ 

6 

6K 

5 

Redcaps                              

iy2 

6 

6 

5 

Orpingtons               

10 

8 

8^ 

7 

French  class: 
Houdans      

7^ 

63^ 

6K 

5U 

Crevecceurs      

8 

6 

La  Fleche  

%y<t 

7l/2 

7^ 

§1A 

Oriental  class: 
Cornish 

9 

7 

8 

6 

Malays 

9 

7 

7 

5 

Malay  Bantams  
Game  Bantam  class: 
Game  Bantams  
Ornamental  Bantam  class: 
Sebrights 

Ounces. 

26 
22 
26 

Ounces. 

24 
20 
22 

Ounces. 

24 
20 
22 

Ounces. 

22 

18 
20 

Rose  Comb 

26 

22 

22 

20 

Booted 

26 

22 

22 

20 

Brahma 

30 

26 

26 

24 

Cochin 

30 

26 

26 

24 

Japanese  

26 

22 

22 

20 

Polish  

26 

22 

22 

.  20 

STANDARD  CLASSIFICATION  71 

Breeds  not  mentioned,  such  as  Leghorns,  Anconas,  Hamburgs, 
Games,  and  others,  have  no  "  standard  "  weights. 

Variety  refers  chiefly  to  color  pattern  of  plumage.  For  instance, 
there  are  six  varieties  of  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  all  should  be  ex- 
actly the  same  shape,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  color  of  the 
plumage.  So  with  Wyandottes;  there  are  eight  distinct  color 
varieties.  In  some  cases,  however,  variety  is  used  to  designate  the 
character  of  comb,  the  color  being  the  same. 

Type  means  the  form  and  function  of  the  body,  or  plan  of 
structure,  as  related  to  the  formation  of  some  special  product;  for 
example,  egg  type  or  meat  type.  The  term  is  used  later  in  this 
chapter. 

Description  of  Breeds. — 1.  The  American  class  includes 
the  breeds  of  poultry  which  have  originated  in  America  and 
which  were  created  and  improved  with  the  idea  of  dual-purpose 
achievement.  They  constitute  the  great  mass  of  poultry  kept  on 
American  farms  and  are  the  popular  general-purpose  fowls  of 
America.  They  average  in  weight  from  five  pounds  in  the  case 
of  immature  females  to  about  ten  pounds  for  the  mature  male  bird. 

The  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  is  undoubtedly  the  leading  breed 
in  popularity, — more  are  grown  each  year  than  any  other  variety. 
This  variety  is  the  result  of  crossing  a  male  Dominique  and  female 
Java.  The  idea  was  to  develop  the  best  possible  utility  bird. 

The  Wyandottes  were  originated  in  New  York  State,  early  in 
1868,  and  probably  contain  intermingled  blood  of  Hamburg, 
Cochin,  and  Dark  Brahma.  They  are  one  of  the  strongest  Ameri- 
can breeds,  and  are  very  popular  in  exhibitions  and  on  general  farms. 

The  Rhode  Island  Red  is  a  breed  of  more  recent  origin.  There 
was  probably  a  great  intermingling  of  different  breeds  in  its  make- 
up. Birds  of  this  breed  were  developed  largely  in  southern  New 
England,  but  have  become  very  popular  for  farm  purposes  in  many 
sections  of  the  country. 

2.  The  Asiatic  Class. — Three  distinct  breeds  are  here  included. 
Each  is  noted  for  its  large  size,  and  all  the  varieties  are  meat- 
producing  fowls.  This  class  includes  the  Brahma,  which  is  the 
largest  of  all  domestic  fowls,  often  attaining  a  weight  of  from  twelve 
to  thirteen  pounds.  They  have  their  origin  in  types  and  varieties 
imported  from  Asia,  as  the  class  name  implies. 

The  Brahmas  were  originated  in  New  England,  and  contain 
the  blood  from  what  was  then  known  as  the  Gray  Chittagong  and 
the  Brahmaputra  (Fig.  41). 


72 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


The  Cochin  originated  in  England,  about  the  time  that  the 
Brahma  was  creating  so  much  interest  in  America.  It  was  devel- 
oped from  what  was  known  as 
the  Shanghai  fowl,  which  probably 
came  in  the  beginning  from  a  port 
in  China  by  that  name. 

The  Langshans  were  developed 
largely  in  England;  their  early 
history  is  somewhat  obscure,  and 
there  is  some  dispute  as  to  their 
ancestry. 

3.  The  Mediterranean  Class. — 
This  group  of  birds  had  their  ori- 
gin on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  The  five  families  or 
breeds  of  this  class  are  recognized 
as  the  world's  best  egg  producers, 
and  they  have  probably  become 
more  generally  distributed  through- 
out the  world  than  any  other  group. 

The  Leghorns  (Fig.  42)  are  by  far  the  most  popular  breed  of 


FIG.  41. — Light  Brahma  hen,  one  of  the 
most  popular  of  heavy  fowls.  This  is  a 
good  example  ef  the  pea  comb. 


r* 




,' 

FIG.  42.— Buff  Leghorns.     The  carriage  shown  here  is  characteristic  of  the  breed. 


STANDARD  CLASSIFICATION  73 

this  class,  and  are  rapidly  gaining  in  numbers  and  distribution  in 
America,  as  they  are  considered  the  most  economic  egg  producers 
in  sections  where  the  white-shelled  eggs  are  preferred.  These 
birds  were  imported  to  this  country  in  1850  from  Leghorn,  Italy. 
Since  then  they  have  been  slowly  developed  until  they  have  as- 
sumed the  characteristics  as  we  know  them  to-day. 

The  Minorcas  originally  came  from  the  Island  of  Minorca,  off 
the  coast  of  Spain.  Early  in  their  development  they  were  known 
as  the  Red-faced  Spanish.  The  original  Minorcas,  when  imported 
to  this  country,  were  much  smaller  and  not  nearly  so  productive 
as  are  the  representatives  to-day.  The  best  specimens  rank  second 
to  the  Leghorn  in  the  Mediterranean  class  as  egg  producers. 

The  White-faced  Black  Spanish  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  in 
existence.  They  were  originally  called  the  Black  Spanish  fowls. 
The  large  white  face  has  been  produced  after  many  years  of  selected 
breeding  for  this  one  feature  alone.  This  breeding  has  resulted  in 
the  lowering  of  other  qualities,  so  that  the  breed  is  not  so  popular 
nor  so  profitable  for  market  purposes  as  it  might  be. 

The  Blue  Andalusian  is  a  breed  almost  as  old  as  history  itself. 
The  ancestry  is  not  known.  Birds  of  this  type  are  constantly 
being  produced  and  have  been  produced  throughout  the  world  as 
the  result  of  crossing  black  and  white  varieties  of  the  same  breed. 
Both  England  and  Canada  have  been  quite  extensive  breeders  of 
pure  and  high-grade  Andalusians.  The  Andalusian  is  midway 
between  a  Leghorn  and  Minorca  in  size  and  shape.  Owing  to  the 
color  of  the  skin  and  other  characteristics,  they  have  not  attained 
any  great  degree  of  popularity  in  the  United  States. 

The  original  home  of  Anconas  was  probably  Italy,  where  they 
are  now  quite  abundant.  They  require  care  and  attention  to  per- 
fect their  color  markings,  and  are  bred  by  the  true  fancier.  The 
general  characteristics  of  Anconas  are  very  similar  to  Leghorns. 
It  is  owing  to  this  fact  that  many  claim  Leghorns  as  the  true  an- 
cestors of  Anconas  (Fig.  43).  As  a  breed  they  have  very  little 
economic  value,  since  there  are  many  others  which  are  far  superior 
to  them  for  both  eggs  and  meat. 

4.  The  English  class  is  represented  by  three  breeds,— Dorkings, 
Red  Caps,  and  Orpingtons. 

The  oldest  of  these,  in  fact  one  of  the  oldest  of  all  breeds,  is 
the  Dorking.  One  peculiar  characteristic  is  the  fifth  toe,  which 
was  early  mentioned  in  agricultural  literature.  The  Dorkings  are 
supposed  to  have  been  imported  from  England  by  the  Romans. 


74 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


FIG.  43. — A  pair  of  Mottled  Anconas — typical  of  the  Mediterranean  class. 
Urban  Farm,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.) 


(Photo  from 


FIG.  44. — A  White  Orpington  pair — an  English  general-purpose  type.     (Photo  from  Harmony 
Park,  Scotch  Plains,  N.  J.) 


STANDARD  CLASSIFICATION 


75 


The  White  Dorking  is  probably  the  oldest  variety  of  this  breed,while 
the  Silver  Gray  variety  is  one  of  the  most  popular.  In  America 
the  Dorkings  have  not  attained  any  great  degree  of  popularity, 
due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  other  breeds  are  considered  better. 

The  Red  Caps  are  well  known  to  fanciers.  They  have  many 
useful  qualities,  but  are  not  practically  considered  among  the 
breeds  in  America. 

The  Orpington  has  recently  come  to  be  one  of  the  most  promis- 
ing breeds  of  poultry  (Fig.  44).  The  honor  of  originating  this 
breed  belongs  to  Mr.  William  Cook,  late  of  England.  The  direct 
object  in  its  make-up  was  to 
secure  a  typical  English  breed 
with  general-purpose  qualities 
to  take  the  place  in  England 
which  is  occupied  in  this  coun- 
try by  the  Plymouth  Rock  and 
the  Wyandotte.  The  English 
requirements  call  for  white 
beak,  shanks,  and  flesh.  In 
America  these  points  are  not 
preferred.  The  Orpingtons 
are  gaining  rapidly  in  popu- 
larity among  American  fan- 
ciers, and  if  the  present  wave 
of  popularity  continues  they 
will  undoubtedly  find  a  place 
among  the  leading  general- 
purpose  breeds  (Fig.  45). 

5.  The  Polish  class  includes 

only  one  breed,  with  many  varieties.  These  are  admired  for  their 
fancy  qualities.  They  have  peculiar  formations  of  the  skull  and 
nostrils,  and  are  distinctive  in  having  a  V-shaped  comb.  The 
Polish  fowls  were  originally  called  Polanders,  from  the  fact  that 
they  were  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Poland.  English  fan- 
ciers have  done  much  toward  improving  this  breed.  The  Canadian 
poultrymen  have  also  taken  considerable  interest  in  the  breed  and 
in  its  improvement.  One  notable  feature  which  fanciers  have 
developed  is  the  size  of  the  crest.  This  was  attained  by  the 
breeding  of  birds  which  have  relatively  large  knobs  on  the  head, 
for  it  was  found  that  the  size  of  the  crest  and  the  knob  have 
a  direct  relation  to  each  other. 


FIG.  45. — Black  Orpington  hen,  represent- 
ing the  ideal  Orpington  type,  not  yet  attained 
in  any  other  than  the  black  variety.  (Photo 
from  Sunswick  Poultry  Farm.) 


76  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

6.  The  Hamburgs  are  of  one  breed  represented  by  six  varieties. 
They  are  noted  for  their  extremely  fancy  plumage  and  peculiar 
carriage.     They  are  supposed  to  have  been  originally  imported 
from  Hamburg,  and  hence  are  often  spoken  of  as  "  Dutch  "  breed. 
They  were  probably  developed  in  England  by  crossing  them  with 
other  varieties  with  fancy  plumage  for  show  purposes.     These 
birds  have  not  attained  any  great  degree  of  popularity  in  America. 

7.  The  French  breeds  are  represented  in  America  by  only  the 
Houdan,  Crevecceur,  and  La  Fleche.    There  is  another  breed  very 
popular  in  France,  namely,  the  Faverolle.     All  these  breeds  are 
raised  very  extensively  in  France,  and  are  used  largely  for  table 
poultry.    There  is  said  to  be  Polish  blood  in  their  make-up. 

The  La  Fleche  most  nearly  corresponds  to  our  egg  type  of 
birds.  The  other  three  French  breeds  are  heavier  meat  breeds, 
and  correspond  more  or  less  to  the  Asiatic  type,  having  a  peculiar 
pinkish-white  skin  and  flesh.  France  is  noted  for  its  extensive 
market-poultry  industry.  The  four  breeds  mentioned  have  not 
attained  any  great  degree  of  popularity  in  America,  as  they  are 
not  considered  superior  to  the  Asiatic  breeds  for  meat  purposes. 

8.  Games  and  Game  Bantams. — The  game  fowl  represents  a 
distinct  type  in  regard  to  shape.    This  type  has  been  in  existence 
as  long  as  poultry  has  been  known.    Legends  say  that  game  fowls 
were  in  existence  in  India  previous  to  the  existence  of  any  authentic 
record.     There  are  eight  well-defined  varieties,  all  of  which  are 
fairly  uniform  as  to  shape.     The  type  bred  in  America  is  very 
similar  to  that  bred  in  England.    This  group  of  birds  is  character- 
ized by  a  very  erect  carriage,  the  result  of  years  of  careful  selection 
and  mating  with  the  original  Pit  Game  type.    Their  commercial 
possibilities  are  very  limited;  therefore  they  are  excluded  from 
the  average  poultry  farm.    Each  of  the  varieties  of  Game  Bantams 
has  the  identical  type  of  the  standard-size  varieties,  but  is  much 
smaller. 

9.  The  Orientals. — The  four  breeds  of  birds  in  this  class  are 
the  Cornish,  Sumatra,  Malay;  and  Malay  Bantam,  all  of  which 
are  of  the  game  type.    Their  main  difference  in  appearance  from 
the  ordinary  game  type  is  a  much  heavier  body,  short  neck,  and 
strong  shanks.    The  Sumatra  and  Malay  are  said  to  have  originated 
in  Oriental  countries.    It  is  said  that  the  Cornish  fowl,  as  we  know 
it  to-day,  originated  in  Cornwall,  England,  as  a  result  of  crossing 
the  Black-breasted  Red  Game  upon  Aseel  birds  imported  from 
India;  and  later  Sumatra  blood  was  introduced.    The  effect  of  this 


STANDARD  CLASSIFICATION 


77 


intermingling  is  very  noticeable  in  the  Cornish  Games  of  to-day. 
They  are  often  spoken  of  as  "  Cornish  Indian  Games." 

10.  Ornamental  Bantams. — This  class  is  represented  by  five 
breeds  and  many  varieties.     They  are  entirely  ornamental,  and 
are  bred  for  pleasure  and  fancy.    They  do,  however,  possess  some 
desirable  poultry  qualities.     Many  of  them  are  egg  layers,  and 
the  Cochin  Bantam  hens  are  profitable  when  used  to  hatch  the 
eggs  of  pheasants  and  other  small  fowls. 

In  this  group  the  Brahma  and  the  Cochin  Bantams  are  the 
exact  image  of  the  standard-size  birds  of  the  same  name. 

The  Rose-comb  Bantams  are  prototypes  of  the  Hamburgs. 

Sebright  Bantams  are  said  to  have  originated  in  England  after 
a  great  many  years  of  careful  breeding,  and  they  are  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  poultry 
breeds  in  the  points  of  sex 
similarity  and  diminutive 
size. 

The  Polish  Bantams 
closely  resemble  the  large 
Polish  breed. 

The  Japanese  Bantams 
are  curiosities  from  the  fact 
that  they  have  exceedingly 
short  legs  in  proportion  to 
size  of  body.  The  male  bird 
is  odd  in  having  sword- 
shaped  sickles,  carried  ver- 
tically (Fig.  46). 

11.  Miscellaneous. — 

Three  breeds  which  cannot  well  be  placed  in  any  other  class  are 
included  here.  It  may  be  said  they  are  freaks  in  certain  character- 
istics. The  Silkies  derived  their  name  from  the  peculiar  formation 
of  their  plumage.  Their  feathers  are  webless  and  of  a  silky  texture. 
This  characteristic  makes  the  breed  interesting,  since  this  feature 
is  not  possessed  by  any  other  standard  variety.  The  face  is  purple 
and  prominent,  the  back  broad,  legs  short  and  feathered,  and  the 
body  profusely  feathered.  Silkies  are  kept  in  this  country  more 
for  fancy  stock  than  for  any  utility  value  which  they  possess. 

The  Sultans  are  less  common  than  the  Silkies.  They  have 
coarse  muff  and  beard,  vulture-like  hock,  and  very  abundant 
shank  and  toe  feathering. 


FIG.  46. — Black-tailed  White  Japanese  Bantams 
— remarkable  for  their  short  legs.  (Photo  by 
Urban  Farms,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.) 


78 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


The  Frizzles  are  named  from  the  fact  that  the  feathers  have  a 
tendency  to  curl  upward  at  the  outer  end.  This  curling  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  hackle,  giving  the  birds  a  general  fluffy  appearance 
as  though  covered  with  curls. 

UTILITY    CLASSIFICATION. 

The  utility  classification,  or  commercial  classification,  is  of 
direct  practical  importance  because  it  takes  into  consideration  the 
economic  and  commercial  value  of  the  different  breeds.  It  is  of 
direct  importance  to  the  farm  poultry  breeder  as  well  as  the  large 

commercial  poultry  plant.  It 
is  based  upon  the  points  which 
are  conducive  to  the  production 
of  eggs  and  meat.  At  best,  a 
classification  of  this  kind  is 
largely  arbitrary.  The  useful 
points  of  a  number  of  popular 
breeds  will  be  considered. 

Four  economic  types  include 
all  breeds  having  any  marked 
degree  of  use  to  man:  (1)  Egg 
breeds;  (2)  meat  breeds;  (3) 
general-purpose  breeds ;  and 
(4)  fancy  breeds.  Only  the 
more  popular  breeds  are  here 
classified. 

Egg  Breeds. — Included  in 
this  group  are  small  or  medium 
fowls  which  have  a  pronounced 
tendency  toward  egg  production.  They  vary  slightly  in  size  and 
form,  but  are  somewhat  of  a  uniform  type.  They  differ  materially 
from  birds  of  the  other  types  mentioned,  as  will  be  shown.  They 
are  possessed  of  a  neat,  trim  carriage,  which  gives  them  an  active 
and  light  appearance.  They  are  relatively  long-legged,  the  legs 
being  free  from  feathers,  and  it  is  the  aim  of  breeders  to  keep  down 
the  weight  of  birds  in  this  class — from  three  to  eight  pounds.  The 
aim  is  not  to  sacrifice  egg  production  for  increased  body  growth. 
The  Leghorns,  Minorcas,  Hamburgs,  Anconas,  Andalusians, 
Spanish,  and  Houdans  are  the  most  distinctive  breeds  of  this  class. 
The  Leghorns  and  Minorcas  are  far  in  the  lead  in  America  (Fig. 
47).  The  Campine  breed  (Fig.  48),  of  French  origin,  is  a  good 
layer  of  large,  white  eggs. 


FIG.  47.- 


shown  in  the 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION 


79 


Disposition.— The  true  egg  producers  are  naturally  light,  active, 
easily  frightened,  and  of  a  more  nervous  disposition  than  any  of 
the  other  types.  It  is  therefore  hard  to  enclose  them.  They  do 
better  on  an  extended  range,  during  the  growing  period,  where 
they  can  take  necessary  exercise.  This  seems  essential  to  their 
proper  development.  If  care  is  used  in  handling  them  when  young, 
the  tendency  to  fly  can  be  partially  overcome.  Owing  to  their 
temperament,  it  is  necessary  when  caring  for  egg  breeds  to  handle 


FIG.  48. — A  Campine  pair,   showing  the  characteristic  narrow  white  and  wide  dark  bars, 
with  light  hackle.     (Photo  by  M.  R.  Jacobus.) 

them  carefully  and  quietly  so  as  not  to  intensify  the  habit  of  flight. 
It  rests  largely  with  the  feeder  and  the  one  who  cares  for  the  birds 
to  keep  them  gentle.  Their  temperament  need  not  restrict  their 
use,  as  it  can  be  governed  by  thought  and  care.  In  practice  it  has 
been  found  best  to  provide  them  with  one  of  two  conditions,— 
either  keep  them  in  close  confinement,  housing  the  entire  flock 
throughout  the  year,  or  give  them  unlimited  range.  Restricted 
range  seems  to  develop  restlessness  and  the  habit  of  flight, 

Mature  Early. — The  egg  breeds  are  early  in  maturing,  and 
both  sexes  usually  attain  the  attitude  and  distinctive  features 
of  the  adults  at  an  early  age.  The  male  Leghorn  grows  tail 
feathers,  heavy  comb,  and  is  fully  feathered  at  the  age  of  nine 
to  ten  weeks.  As  the  birds  become  completely  feathered  they  are 


80  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

better  able  to  stand  bad  weather  under  a  great  variety  of  condi- 
tions. Previous  to  this  a  rapid  feather  growth  takes  place,  which 
causes  a  heavy  strain  on  the  system  of  the  growing  chick.  This 
requires  careful  handling  up  to  twelve  weeks  of  age.  Undoubtedly 
early  feather  growth  is  the  cause  of  many  deaths  of  Leghorn  chicks. 
Leghorn  pullets  will  be  mature  and  begin  laying  eggs  when  from 
four  to  five  months  of  age,  under  favorable  conditions;  six  months 
is  perhaps  a  better  age  for  laying  to  begin. 

Poor  Sitters. — Egg  breeds  are  by  nature  poor  sitters  and  poor 
mothers,  due  largely  to  their  nervous  temperament  and  disposition 
to  be  always  on  the  move.  This  is  true  of  the  entire  Mediterranean 
class.  Breeders  have  tried  for  many  years  to  improve  the  sitting 
quality  in  this  type  of  bird,  with  little  success.  The  tendency  has 
been  to  develop  the  egg-laying  propensities  of  the  hens  and  thus 
obliterate  the  mother  instinct.  They  become  more  and  more  like 
mere  egg  machines. 

There  are  cases  of  Leghorns  making  good  sitters  and  mothers. 
Such  hens  are  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  In  many  in- 
stances the  desire  to  sit  may  be  very  pronounced  at  the  beginning 
of  the  spring  brooding  period,  but  does  not  last  for  many  days. 
The  breeder  using  such  hens  will  often  find  a  nest  of  eggs  chilled 
and  deserted,  due  to  the  fickleness  of  individuals  of  this  type. 
Exclusive  egg  farms  either  use  artificial  methods  of  incubation  or 
make  use  of  broody  hens  of  some  other  breed. 

Foraging  Abilities. — Birds  of  the  egg  type  are  noted  for  their 
foraging  abilities.  Owing  to  their  active  disposition  and  their 
desire  to  roam,  they  will  go  a  long  way  from  the  roosting  quarters 
in  search  of  feed.  Egg  breeds  can  be  kept  much  more  cheaply 
than  the  heavier  breeds,  as  they  will  obtain  a  great  deal  more 
natural  feed  on  their  foraging  expeditions.  When  it  is  impossible 
to  give  them  free  range,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  exercise  in  some 
other  form.  This  can  best  be  done  by  inducing  the  birds  to  scratch 
in  search  of  grain  scattered  in  deep  litter.  When  proper  attention 
is  given  to  exercise,  this  type  of  bird  thrives  very  well,  in  spite  of 
close  confinement.  On  large  egg  plants,  the  most  economical 
method  of  keeping  this  type  of  hens  during  the  summer  is  on  free 
range.  They  get  a  large  amount  of  greSn  feed  and  secure  a  great 
many  grubs  and  other  insects  which  to  some  extent  take  the  place 
of  meat  scrap. 

Susceptible  to  Cold. — The  egg  breeds  have  large  combs  and 
wattles  and  are  enveloped  by  close  plumage,  which  tend  to  make 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION  81 

them  susceptible  to  cold.  In  practice,  however,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  birds  do  not  suffer  severely  if  the  house  is  kept  well  ven- 
tilated. An  abundance  of  fresh  air  and  oxygen  keeps  up  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood  and  removes  surplus  moisture.  The  presence 
of  moist  air  is  very  detrimental  and  tends  to  produce  frozen  combs 
in  winter.  Frozen  combs  and  wattles  must  be  avoided,  as  they 
impair  the  physical  condition  of  the  birds,  and  greatly  reduce,  for 
a  time  at  least,  the  egg-laying  capacity,  due  to  the  impaired  vitality. 
The  close  feathering  does  not  offer  the  protection  against  cold 
that  is  found  in  the  meat  breeds  or  loosely  feathered  birds.  A 
thick  growth  of  feathers  offers  better  protection. 


FIG.  49.— Single-comb  White  Leghorns,  the  most  popular  of  the  egg  breeds.     (Photo  by 
International  Correspondence  Schools.) 

A  reason  which  is  advanced  for  the  breeding  of  rose-comb  birds 
is  the  supposed  hardiness  of  such  combs.  In  practice,  the  wattles 
and  the  spikes  of  the  rose  combs  are  often  frozen.  It  has  been 
impossible  to  breed  as  high  a  producing  strain  of  rose-comb  birds 
as  of  single-comb  birds.  The  Leghorns,  in  spite  of  the  danger  of 
suffering  from  cold,  have  proved  to  be  one  of  the  hardiest  breeds 
kept  in  this  country.  For  winter  egg  production,  they  have  proved 
their  worth  in  practically  all  sections.  When  provided  with  proper 
houses  and  the  right  kind  of  feed,  they  are  well  able  to  withstand 
the  winters.  . 

Leghorns  outclass  all  others  in  popularity  for  egg-producing 

6 


82  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

purposes.  They  lay  extremely  large  white-shelled  eggs  which  top 
the  market  at  the  best  prices.  The  birds  are  small  in  size  and  are 
not  suitable  for  table  purposes  (Fig.  49).  Where  they  are  kept, 
little  attention  is  devoted  to  the  production  of  meat;  the  revenues 
from  birds  sold  for  this  purpose  are  comparatively  small.  They 


FIG.  50. — Single-comb  Black  Minorca  pair,  a  breed  noted  for  large  eggs  with  white  shells. 

lay  so  many  eggs  that  the  sales  for  meat  can  be  eliminated.  Re- 
cords show  individuals  that  have  produced  more  than  two  hun- 
dred eggs  per  year,  and  in  rare  instances  large  flocks  have  averaged 
as  high  as  this.  Leghorns,  owing  to  their  small  size,  are  light 
eaters,  both  during  their  growth  and  after  maturity.  All  things 
considered,  it  costs  less  for  feed  to  produce  eggs  with  Leghorns 
than  with  any  other  breed.  The  Brown  Leghorns  have  become 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION 


83 


quite  popular,  but  they  do  not  equal  the  white  variety.  Solid- 
colored  birds,  as  the  White  Leghorns,  are  more  satisfactory  to  the 
poultrymari,  as  they  are  easier  to  breed  true  to  color.  The  pri- 
mary object,  in  this  case,  is  the  production  of  eggs,  and  he  does 
not  wish  to  consider  the  fancy  points  of  color  plumage. 

Minor cas  rank  second  to  Leghorns  in  egg  production  (Fig.  50). 
They  are  the  heaviest  breed  in  the  Mediterranean  class,  but  in 
appearance  resemble  the  Leghorns.  They  have  larger  combs  and 
wattles,  increasing  the  danger 
of  freezing.  They  lay  extreme- 
ly large,  white  eggs,  the  largest 
of  any  standard  breed  kept 
for  egg  production.  The  shells 
are  thin  and  there  is  danger 
of  breakage  during  shipment. 
The  size  of  the  eggs  is  in  their 
favor,  but  a  special  type  of 
carton  or  filler  is  required  to 
ship  them.  For  a  high-class 
retail  trade  the  large,  ivory- 
white  eggs  always  bring  a  pre- 
mium. This  breed  has  never 
become  so  popular  in  America 
as  the  Leghorns,  owing  per- 
haps to  the  fact  that  the  shanks 
have  a  dark -blue  color.  They 
have  meaty  bodies,  but,  owing 
to  the  color  of  the  skin  and 
flesh,  they  are  not  demanded 
by  the  general  trade.  Minor- 
cas  are  much  harder  to  raise  to  maturity  than  Leghorns,  having 
less  vitality.  There  are  fewer  raised,  and  hence  less  selection  for 
vigor  and  vitality  is  practised. 

The  other  egg  breeds  mentioned  are  of  no  great  economic 
importance  in  America,  and  will  not  be  discussed  in  detail  here. 

Meat  Breeds. — The  second  type  or  group  of  birds  to  consider 
from  the  economic  standpoint  are  those  adapted  for  meat  pur- 
poses. These  birds  are  of  good  size,  compactly  built,  and  are 
noted  for  quality  and  quantity  of  flesh.  Birds  of  the  Asiatic  group 
undoubtedly  fulfil  these  requirements  best.  In  every  respect  large 
birds  are  preferred,  as  there  is  less  waste  in  bone  and  offal,  and 


84 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


large  fowls  can  be  served  on  the  table  to  better  advantage  than 
small  ones  (Fig.  51). 

Brahmas,  Cochins  (Fig.  52),  and  Langshans  represent  the  meat 
type  in  the  highest  degree.  They  are  larger  and  blockier  than  the 
egg  breeds;  and  have  good  depth  and  breadth  of  body,  with  very 
full  breast.  The  legs  have  the  appearance  of  being  very  short; 
but  this  is  an  illusion,  due  to  the  extreme  fulness  of  the  feathers. 
A  large,  soft-meated  bird  with  an  abundance  of  flesh  and  plumage 
is  the  most  highly  prized.  The  breeds  may  be  subdivided  accord- 


FIG.  52. — Buff  Cochins,  oue  of  the  heaviest  of  the  meat  breeds. 

ing  to  the  character  and  quality  of  meat.  Some  are  suited  for 
broilers,  others  for  roasters,  and  others  for  capons. 

Many  of  the  general-purpose  breeds  are  used  extensively  for 
meat  purposes,  but  they  are  not  strictly  included  in  the  meat 
class,  as  they  do  not  represent  the  greatest  quality  or  quantity 
which  it  is  possible  to  attain. 

Disposition. — They  are  slow  in  movement  and  are  not  easily 
frightened.  If  properly  handled  when  young,  they  become  very 
gentle,  and  do  not  dislike  handling  and  attention  as  do  the  egg 
breeds.  The  meat  breeds  have  a  lazy  disposition,  and  require 
more  care  in  feeding  than  the  lighter  breeds. 

Mature  Late. — The  meat  breeds  are  very  slow  in  maturing, 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION  85 

not  assuming  the  adult  features  very  young.  They  are  slow  in 
feathering  and  are  always  slow  growers.  It  takes  from  six  to 
eight  months  or  longer  to  mature  a  pullet  to  laying  condition. 
The  males  do  not  assume  or  attain  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
for  meat  until  from  seven  to  ten  months  of  age.  Owing  to  their 
slow  development  and  slow  feathering,  they  are  rather  hard  to 
raise  during  the  first  four  months.  Rainy  weather  and  even  damp, 
unsettled  weather  seem  to  chill  the  young  chicks,  as  they  have 
very  little,  if  any,  protection  in  the  form  of  feathers.  Although 
growth  takes  place  very  late  in  the  development  of  the  birds,  yet 
the  meat  remains  soft,  so  that  at  twelve  months  of  age  the  flesh 
may  be  as  tender  as  it  is  at  five  or  six  months  in  the  lighter  breeds. 
Later  it  becomes  very  fibrous. 

Persistent  Sitters. — They  are  naturally  very  persistent  sitters 
and  good  mothers;  but,  owing  to  their  large  size,  feathered  shanks, 
and  clumsy  movements,  they  are  apt  to  break  the  eggs  or  crush 
the  chicks  in  the  nest.  As  there  are  several  general-purpose  breeds 
which  make  as  good  or  better  sitters,  hens  of  the  meat  breeds  are 
less  used  for  that  purpose.  The  Bantam  meat  breeds  make  very 
good  mothers,  and  are  often  used  for  that  purpose. 

Poor  Foragers. — The  heavy  meat  fowls  are  not,  by  nature, 
adapted  to  seeking  their  own  feed,  and  will  not  roam  a  great 
distance  from  the  roosting  quarters  in  search  of  it.  They  are 
easily  enclosed,  a  three-foot  fence  being  sufficient  in  most  cases. 
They  are  adapted  to  the  small  farm  or  city  lot,  where  they  are 
confined  in  small  areas.  They  are  not  persistent  scratchers,  and 
can  be  given  the  freedom  of  a  city  lot  without  danger  of  seriously 
disfiguring  it. 

Extreme  Hardiness. — Fowls  of  the  meat  breeds  are  heavily 
feathered,  have  small  combs  and  wattles,  and  protected  shanks; 
this  makes  them  well  suited  to  withstand  extremely  low  tempera- 
tures. This  fact  should  not  encourage  breeders-  to  take  undue 
risk  when  providing  winter  quarters.  No  birds,  regardless  of  their 
make-up,  will  thrive  in  a  house  poorly  ventilated  or  having  an 
excess  of  moisture.  The  Brahma  is  especially  well  protected 
from  the  cold,  owing  to  the  small  wattles  and  pea  comb.  The 
Langshan  (Fig.  53),  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  rather  large  comb 
and  suffers  more  in  this  respect  under  adverse  conditions. 

Egg- Laying. — This  group  is  not  noted  for  its  egg-laying  pro- 
pensities, being  the  lowest  of  any  group.  General-purpose  breeds 
surpass  them  in  this  respect.  It  is  always  true  in  animal  breeding 


86 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


that  usefulness  in  an  animal  attains  its  highest  perfection  in  one 
direction  only.  When  the  animal  shows  a  marked  advance  along 
one  line,  it  is  at  the  expense  of  some  other  feature.  So  there  has 
not  been  a  tendency  to  develop,  to  any  great  extent,  the  egg- 
laying  properties  of  the  meat  breeds.  The  Light  Brahma  has, 
however,  been  considered  a  good  layer,  considering  its  size  and 
weight.  Modern  poultrymen,  keeping  the  heavy  breeds,  consider 


FIG.  53. — Black  Langshan  pair,  a  meat  breed  noted  for  great  height.      (Photo  by  Urban 
Farms,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.) 

them  useful  for- turning  out  flesh  of  superior  quality.  They  get 
eggs  enough  from  them  to  perpetuate  the  breed  and  to  supply 
enough  young  for  market  purposes. 

General-Purpose  Breeds. — A  number  of  breeds  have  been 
developed  and  bred  for  two  purposes,  namely,  the  production  of 
both  meat  and  eggs.  Birds  of  this  type  are  most  generally  kept 
on  American  farms  and  are  credited  with  the  great  mass  of  poultry 
and  egg  products  sent  to  market.  The  majority  of  farmers,  keep- 
ing small  flocks,  desire  a  type  which  can  furnish  the  home  table 
and  market  with  both  eggs  and  meat.  After  the  fowls  have  passed 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION 


87 


their  usefulness  as  egg  producers  they  bring  considerable  revenue 
when  sold  for  meat.  The  males  of  this  class  make  the  best  market 
broilers;  and,  as  the  surplus  must  be  disposed  of,  they  brine;  good 
prices  when  marketed  as  broilers.  Their  strong  constitution  is  one 
factor  in  making  them  popular. 

Fowls  of  this  class  are  good  layers,  and  some  breeds  of  the 
group  are  good  winter  layers.  In  fact,  some  strains  have  been 
so  developed  that  they  nearly  equal,  and  in  some  instances  excel 
the  Leghorns.  They  have  been  developed  for  winter  eggs  because 
eggs  produced  at  that  season  bring  higher  prices  than  those 
produced  at  any  other  time. 
Another  reason  why  this  type 
is  so  popular  is  that  the  hens 
become  broody  and  make 
good  natural  incubators  and 
are  good  mothers.  On  the 
average  farm  it  is  not  prof- 
itable, owing  to  the  small 
number  of  chicks  hatched, 
to  use  artificial  incubators; 
hence  this  quality  is  of  great 
importance.  Fowls  of  the 
general-purpose  type  may  be 
said  to  hold  a  medium  place 
in  nearly  all  respects  between 
the  egg  and  meat  types,  in 
some  degree  combining  the 
good  qualities  of  each  (Figs.  T 

ZiA.         r\    ZZ\  — Ideal  general-purpose  shape,  as  shown 

O*±  ana  OO;.  in  the  Plymouth  Rock  breed. 

Disposition. — Birds  of  the 

general-purpose  breeds  are  gentle,  not  easily  frightened,  and  of  a 
quiet  disposition.  They  are  much  more  easily  confined  than  the 
egg  breeds,  since  they  are  heavier  and  it  is  much  harder  for  them 
to  fly  over  a  given  height  of  fence.  A  fence  six  feet  high  is  usually 
sufficient  to  turn  birds  of  this  group,  except  in  cases  where  the  habit 
of  flight  is  unusually  well  developed.  They  are  of  medium  size, 
have  blocky,  compact  bodies  and  rather  short  legs.  The  blocky 
appearance  is  more  pronounced  than  in  nearly  all  other  breeds. 

Maturity. — Chicks  of  this  type  mature  quicker,  passing  through 
the  delicate  stages  more  rapidly  and  stronger,  than  those  of  the 
meat  type.  They  grow  more  quickly  but  do  not  take  on  mature 


88  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

features  as  early  as  chicks  of  the  egg  breeds.  They  are  quick  in 
maturing,  the  pullets  laying  at  from  five  to  six  months.  A  good 
time  for  hatching  is  April,  as  this  brings  them  to  maturity  at  about 
the  right  time  in  the  fall.  They  reach  the  market  broiler  age  at 
about  ten  to  fifteen  weeks,  depending  upon  the  size  and  type  of 


FIG.  55. — Comparison  of  the  three  utility  types  of  poultry. 

broiler  desired ;  and  they  may  prove  very  profitable  when  disposed 
of  in  season  at  this  early  age. 

Good  Sitters. — They  are  not  as  persistent  sitters  as  hens  of  the 
meat  breeds,  yet  they  will  make  much  better  sitters  and  mothers. 
They  are  lighter  in  weight  and  do  not  have  feathered  shanks. 
Yearlings  and  two-year-old  hens  are  good  for  this  purpose.  One 
objection  to  certain  breeds  of  this  group,  from  the  egg-production 
standpoint,  is  the  large  number  of  broody  hens  during  the  spring; 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION 


this  feature  lowers  the  total  yield  of  eggs.  The  Rhode  Island  Reds 
are  often  objected  to  for  this  reason. 

Good  Foragers. — These  birds  do  not  roam  as  far  as  those  of  the 
lighter  breeds,  yet  they  are  very  good  foragers,  and  will  seek  out  a 
living  if  given  an  opportunity  to  do  so.  The  young  of  this  group, 
during  their  development,  will  cover  an  extensive  range  in  search 
of  green  feed  and  insects,  and  will  make  a  very  satisfactory  growth 
with  very  little  supplemental  feed.  It  is  the  best  practice,  from  the 
standpoint  of  a  quick  and  economic  growth,  to  check  this  habit  by 
supplying  considerable  feed  in  the  vicinity  of  their  quarters. 

Hardiness. — The  general-purpose  breeds  are  protected  from 
cold  nearly  as  well  as  the  meat  breeds,  having  loose,  fluffy  plumage, 
medium-sized  combs  and  wattles,  and  compact  bodies.  They  are 
thus  able  to  withstand  severe  weather.  They  are  much  better 
protected  than  the  egg  breeds,  and  will  often  lay  better  during 
the  winter  months,  when  the  quarters  are  not  the  most  favorable. 

The  most  prominent  representatives  of  this  group  are  the 
Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  Orpingtons, 
Javas,  Dominiques,  Dorkings,  and  sometimes  Cornish  Indian 
Games.  The  four  mentioned  first  are  by  far  the  most  popular  in 
America  at  the  present  time,  their  popularity  being  approximately 
in  the  order  named.  The  Orpingtons  are  gaining  rapidly,  and  it 
is  probable  that  they  may  surpass  the  Rhode  Island  Reds.  The 
Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and  Rhode  Island  Reds  have 
bright-yellow  skin,  shanks,  and  beak,  which  is  a  desired  asset  in 
market  poultry.  The  Orpingtons  have  white  shanks  and  beak. 
This  color  tends  to  work  against  them  as  market  poultry. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  any  one  of  these  four  breeds  is  better 
than  the  others  in  all  respects.  They  all  have  desirable  points  and, 
in  fact,  are  very  similar  in  many  respects.  There  is  often  a  greater 
difference  between  the  strains  of  the  same  breed  than  there  is 
between  the  breeds  themselves.  In  selecting  a  breed  the  best  plan 
is  to  pick  out  the  one  which  appeals  to  the  poultryman's  ideal, 
and  then,  by  breeding  and  selection,  develop  this  strain  to  be  the 
best  one  of  the  breed. 

Plymouth  Rocks  are  undoubtedly  the  leaders  of  these  four 
breeds,  the  barred  variety  being  the  most  popular  (Fig.  56  and 
57).  These  fowls  resemble  the  meat  breeds  in  size  and  the  Leg- 
horns in  egg  production.  The  flesh  is  of  fine  quality;  they  are 
blocky  fowls,  having  a  rather  long  body,  plump  and  well  propor- 
tioned. The  laying  qualities  of  the  Plymouth  Rocks  have  been 


90 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


FIG.  56. — The  most  popular  farm  breed  of  poultry — Barred  Plymouth  Rock  pair.     (Photo 
from  Grove  Hill  Poultry  Yards,  Waltham,  Mass.) 


FIG.  57.— White  Plymouth  Rock  pair.     (Photo  by  Urban  Farms,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.) 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION  91 

well  developed.  There  are  many  reliable  records  of  approximately 
two  hundred  and  fifty  eggs  per  hen  from  well-bred  birds.  In  their 
first  year  the  Plymouth  Rocks  make  good  winter  layers,  better  in 
some  cases  than  the  so-called  egg  breeds.  When  confined  they  also 
do  well.  There  is  probably  no  other  breed  better  adapted  to  the 
varying  conditions  of  environment,— certainly  none  that  combines 
in  one  type  so  many  desirable  qualities.  Some  poultrymen  prefer 
the  White  Plymouth  Rocks  for  market  poultry,  as  they  appear 
better  when  dressed.  The  white  pin-feathers  are  less  showy  after 


FIG.  58. — An  excellent  general-purpose  breed — White  Wyandotte  pair.     (Photo  from  Onlya 
Farm,  Florham  Park,  N.  J.) 

dressing.    There  is  practically  no  difference  between  the  varieties 
of  this  breed  in  other  respects. 

The  Wyandottes  (Figs.  58  and  59)  are  rapidly  gaining  in  popu- 
larity, and  probably  rank  second  to  the  Plymouth  Rocks.  The 
breed  is  newer,  having  been  recognized  since  1883.  They  are  a 
little  smaller  in  size,  with  blockier,  deeper  body  than  the  Plymouth 
Rocks;  and  have  rose  combs.  They  have  a  neat  and  trim  appear- 
ance, and  a  full  plump  breast,  with  an  abundance  of  white  meat, 
which  makes  them  useful  as  roasters.  The  good  breast  meat  also 
makes  them  valuable  for  medium  and  large  broilers.  Records 
show  that  they  are  good  layers.  The  white  variety  (Fig.  58)  leads 
in  popularity,  as  they  are  much  easier  to  breed  true  to  color. 


92 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


FIG.  59. — Silver  Wyandottes,  noted  for  their  beauty  of  plumage. 


Fia.  60. — Rhode  Island  Reds,  a  general-purpose  breed  gaining  in  popularity.     (Photo 
by  Dearborn  and  Sharp,  Blairstown,  N.  J.) 


UTILITY  CLASSIFICATION  93 

Rhode  Island  Reds  are  gaining  rapidly  in  popularity,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  have  proved  to  be  good  winter  layers.  They 
are  very  hardy,  and  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Plymouth 
Rocks,  having  long,  rectangular-shaped  bodies  (Fig.  60).  Objec- 
tions to  them  are  the  tendency  to  vary  in  color  of  plumage  and 
the  variation  in  size  and  color  of  eggs.  Compared  with  the  Ply- 
mouth Rocks  and  Wyandottes,  they  are  more  active  and  mature 
considerably  earlier,  the  pullets  often  reaching  maturity  in  from 


FIG.  61. — The  Cornish  Game,   a  close-feathered,  heavy-meated  breed. 

Hill  Poultry  Yards.) 


(Photo  by  Oak 


four  and  one-half  to  five  months.  In  sections  where  they  have 
been  introduced  they  are  highly  prized  as  farm  fowls. 

Cornish  Indian  Games  are  sometimes  included  in  the  general- 
purpose  group.  By  some  they  are  classed  with  the  meat  breeds. 
They  make  very  excellent  table  fowls  when  young.  The  hens  are 
good  sitters  and  excellent  mothers,  but  not  prolific  layers  (Fig.  61). 
Their  distribution  is  on  the  decrease  rather  than  on  the  increase. 

The  Dorkings  are  an  English  breed  which  approaches  the  ideal 
of  general-purpose  qualities  more  than  any  other  foreign  breed. 
They  are  low,  heavy-bodied  birds  and  are  very  good  layers. 


94  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

The  Houdans  are  the  most  popular  French  breed  of  the  general- 
purpose  type.  They  are  especially  noted  for  heavy  egg  production, 
and  furnish  considerable  meat  of  excellent  quality. 

Fancy  Breeds. — This  group  includes  breeds  and  varieties 
kept  and  bred  mainly  for  exhibition  purposes.  Most  of  these 
varieties  carry  peculiar  and  highly  developed  color  patterns  or 
plumage  markings.  Many  fowls  of  this  group  are  good  layers. 
This  quality  might  be  intensified  by  selection  and  breeding.  Many 
of  them  are  capable  of  producing  meat  of  most  excellent  quality. 
But  there  are  special  breeds  better  adapted  to  these  purposes; 
and  the  fancy  breeds  have  not  attained  wide  distribution  and  are 
not  common  on  farms. 

Those  mentioned  here  are  a  few  of  the  better  known  breeds 
representing  this  type.  The  varieties  of  the  Polish  breed  have 
extremely  fancy  plumage,  and  a  large  crest  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
The  exhibition  and  ornamental  Games  may  also  be  grouped  here. 
The  Silkies,  Sultans,  and  Frizzles  are  birds  which  are  bred  primarily 
for  exhibition  purposes.  Each  is  of  interest  because  of  some  pecu- 
liar feature.  The  Bantams  are  bred  for  fancy  or  ornamental  pur- 
poses, as  they  contain  few,  if  any,  utility  qualities. 

In  this  connection  it  must  be  understood  that  all  breeds  of 
poultry,  regardless  of  their  utility  value,  are  bred  for  fancy  points. 
There  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  select  the  best  utility  breeds 
for  this  purpose.  This  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  The  Wyan- 
dottes,  Orpingtons,  and  Plymouth  Rocks  are  useful  breeds  which 
are  taking  more  prominent  places  in  the  large  shows;  this  is  result- 
ing in  better  quality  and  more  fixed  type  in  these  breeds. 

Fancy  Qualities. — The  term  "  fancy  qualities  "  is  often  used 
to  mean  purely  show  features.  It  is  also  used  to  describe  standard- 
bred  poultry.  The  latter  use  is  the  more  correct,  since  it  includes 
all  requirements  to  represent  the  height  of  perfection  from  every 
standpoint.  Certain  breeders  opposed  to  the  work  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association  often  use  the  term  "  fancy  "  in  such  a  way  as 
to  leave  a  misunderstanding  as  to  its  exact  meaning.  All  birds, 
if  they  are  standard-bred,  should  possess  the  requirements  of  color 
and  plumage  markings  for  the  best  birds  in  their  breed.  In  many 
cases  to  attain  the  intricate  pattern  and  plumage  requires  careful 
selection  and  breeding. 

The  term  "  standard-bred  "  covers  the  requirements  of  size, 
shape,  and  general  conformation  of  body  considered  necessary  or 
useful  for  market  poultry,  and  the  size  and  weight  of  body  for  egg 


REVIEW  95 

production.    The  present  use  of  the  term  does  not,  however,  con- 
sider form  and  conformation  for  egg  production. 

As  breed  types  become  more  fixed  and  a  better  understanding 
is  obtained  of  the  different  breeds,  the  fancy  and  the  utility  re- 
quirements will  more  nearly  coincide. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Trace  the  origin  of  the  domestic  fowl. 

2.  Give  tire  zoological  classification  of  birds,  showing  their  place  in  the  animal 

kingdom. 

3.  Describe  the  class  A  ves,  or  birds. 

4.  Name  the  two  common  classifications  of  poultry. 

5.  How  many  different  varieties  are  recognized  in  the  standard  classification? 

6.  Enumerate  the  class  numbers  and  names. 

7.  Enumerate  the  breeds  and  their  varieties  in  classes  1  to  4. 

8.  What  is  the  relative  variation  in  weights  in  classes  1,  2,  and  3? 

9.  Upon  what  features  is  the  standard  classification  based? 

10.  Give  the  origin  of  the  Plymouth  Rock,  Leghorn,  and  Light  Brahma. 

11.  What  does  the  Bantam  class  represent? 

12.  Give  the  meanings  of  class,  breed,  and  variety. 

13.  What  is  the  basis  of  the  utility  classification? 

14.  Give  the  four  divisions  of  this  classification. 

15.  Discuss  the  egg  breeds  as  to  disposition,  maturity,  and  hardiness. 

16.  Name  the  two  leading  breeds  in  this  group;  compare  them. 

17.  Discuss  the  meat  breeds  as  regards  disposition,  maturity,  fecundity,  and 

foraging  abilities. 

18.  Name  the  three  leading  meat  breeds. 

19.  What  position  do  the  general-purpose  breeds  fill  in  the  utility  classification? 

20.  Discuss  the  general-purpose  group  with  respect  to  disposition,  sitting 

qualities,  and  hardiness. 

21.  Name  four  leading  breeds  in  this  group. 

22.  What  are  the  most  distinctive  differences  between  the  egg,  meat,  and 

general-purpose  types? 

23.  Discuss  the  so-called  fancy  group. 

References.— Breeds  of  Chickens,  by  James  Dryden,  Oregon  Reading 
Course  Lesson  II;  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens,  by  G.  E.  Howard,  U.  S. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  51;  A  Test  of  Breeds,  by  F.  E.  Emery,  North  Carolina 
Bulletin  167. 

The  Plymouth  Rocks,  Bulletin  29,  The  Wyandottes,  Bulletin  31;  American 
Breeds  of  Fowls,  Report  1901 :  All  by  T.  F.  McGrew,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry. 


CHAPTER  V. 
SELECTION  OF  STOCK. 

THE  DIFFERENCE  between  success  and  failure  in  poultry  keep- 
ing is  often  measured  by  the  kind  and  quality  of  stock  with  which 
the  start  is  made.  Poorly  bred  birds  of  low  vitality,  which  are 
not  by  nature  adapted  to  the  purpose  in  view,  will  not  bring  to 
the  owner  a  profitable  business.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  the  selection  of  the  stock  which  is  to  be  used  as  the  source  of 
many  generations  of  future  producers. 

Pure-bred  Stock  Best. — Pure-bred  birds  possess  every  advan- 
tage over  mongrels,  and  failure  to  see  and  appreciate  this  fact 
often  results  in  limited  returns  and  possible  failure.  The  following 
discussion  of  the  possibilities  of  pure-bred  poultry  is  given  with 
the  hope  that  it  may  impress  upon  all  poultry  farmers  the  wisdom 
of  keeping  pure-bred  poultry. 

Pure-bred  is  a  term  applied  to  birds  without  the  admixture  of 
alien  blood, — birds  having  pure  blood  lines  through  many  years 
of  ancestry. 

Advantages  of  Pure  Breeds  over  Mongrels. — There  is  more 
reliability  in  their  breeding.  A  pure-bred  flock  of  some  standard 
breed,  having  been  purely  bred  for  many  generations,  will  repro- 
duce their  kind  with  an  unfailing  certainty.  There  is  no  alien 
blood  to  bring  out  objectionable  characteristics,  and  the  breeder 
has  a  much  greater  opportunity  of  knowing  what  to  expect  from 
a  given  mating.  This  strong  hereditary  tendency  of  one  type,  due 
to  many  years  of  straight  breeding,  is  not  found  in  cross-breeds 
or  mixed  flocks. 

Larger  Egg  Production. — It  is  fair  to  state,  and  experience 
proves  the  assertion,  that  pure-bred  poultry  represented  by  the 
breeds  which  have  been  bred  for  egg  production  for  many  genera- 
tions, will  lay  a  larger  number  of  eggs  than  will  birds  of  mixed 
breeding.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  pure-bred  breeds  have 
been  so  bred  that  every  tendency  and  every  spark  of  surplus  energy 
go  toward  this  function.  They  have  been  bred  so  that  every  par- 
ticle of  feed  which  is  not  utilized  for  maintenance  and  energy  will 
naturally,  due  to  the  constitutional  make-up  of  the  bird,  go  toward 
the  formation  of  eggs  and  not  toward  flesh  growth. 
96 


ADVANTAGE  OF  PURE  BREEDS  OVER  MONGRELS         97 

Improved  Quality  of  Meat. —The  same  assertion  holds  true  with 
reference  to  the  meat  breeds,  namely,  that  they  have  been  bred 
true  for  generations,  the  idea  being  to  breed  into  them  the  tendency 
to  take  all  surplus  feed  and  put  it  into  flesh  of  a  superior  quality 
and  texture.  An  example  of  the  superiority  of  a  meat  breed,  from 
the  meat  standpoint,  over  an  egg  breed,  is  shown  by  comparing 
the  Leghorn  and  Plymouth  Rock.  In  Leghorns  the  flesh  is  limited 
in  amount,  is  much  more  tenacious,  with  less  fatty  tissue,  and  has 
a  large  percentage  of  connective  tissue  or  fibrous  bands  (Fig.  62). 


FIG.  62. — Flesh  of  fowls,  showing  difference  in  texture  in  the  egg  and  the  meat  breeds. 
Highly  magnified.    Left,  White  Leghorn;  right,  Barred  Plymouth  Rock. 

In  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  which  represent  the  highest  perfection 
in  the  pure-bred  meat  breeds,  the  flesh  growth  is  noted  for  its 
abundance;  it  has  considerable  fatty  tissue  among  the  layers  of 
lean  meat,  and  a  small  amount  of  connective  or  fibrous  tissue, 
giving  it  a  finer  texture  and  making  it  much  more  tender  when 
cooked.  The  meat  breeds  are  superior  to  mongrels  as  table  fowls. 
Uniformity  of  Eggs. — Pure-bred  birds  show  a  greater  uni- 
formity in  the  eggs  produced,  as  to  size,  color,  and  shape.  Each 
breed  has  its  distinctive  shape  and  color  of  egg,  and,  when  there 
is  an  attempt  to  cross  breeds,  no  dependence  can  be  put  upon  the 
uniformity  or  character  of  the  eggs  produced.  This  is  of  special 
7 


98  SELECTION  OF  STOCK 

significance,  for  most  markets  desire  eggs  of  some  definite  color, 
or  at  least  that  they  shall  be  uniform  in  color.  A  medium  large 
egg  always  brings  a  higher  price.  Whatever  the  type,  they  must 
be  uniform  in  size  and  shape  to  command  the  best  price.  When 
breeds  producing  eggs  of  different  color  and  size  are  crossed,  the 
resulting  product  will  be  anything  but  uniform  (Fig.  63). 

More  Attractive  Appearance. — A  flock  of  birds,  whether  ten  or 
one  thousand,  uniform  in  size,  shape,  and  color  makes  a  much  more 
pleasing  appearance  than  a  mixed  lot.  Furthermore,  such  a  flock 
is  a  credit  and  an  advertising  factor  to  the  breeder,  for  such  a 
flock  shows  system  in  all  the  operations  of  breeding  and  leaves  a 


FIG.  63. — Eggs,  from  pure  breeds  and  from  mongrels.  Upper  row,  pure-bred  White 
Leghorns,  uniform  in  texture,  color  and  shape;  lower  row,  from  cross  of  Leghorns  and 
Plymouth  Rocks,  showing  lack  of  uniformity. 

pleasing  impression  upon  the  prospective  purchaser  who  may 
happen  that  way.  Appearance  in  some  cases  may  not  have  a 
direct  commercial  value,  yet  it  has  a  secondary  value  in  creating 
a  name  for  the  flock  or  strain.  This  is  often  underestimated. 

First  Cost  is  but  Slightly  More. — Many  pure-bred  farm  animals 
cost  so  much  that  the  price  is  prohibitive  for  the  average  farmer. 
He  is  compelled  to  practise  grading  up.  With  fowls  the  cost  of  a 
few  high-class,  standard-bred  birds  is  small,  compared  with  their 
increased  value.  Every  poultryman  should  begin  right  by  select- 
ing a  few,  at  least,  of  the  best  birds  he  can  get,  representing  the 
type  best  adapted  to  his  desired  purpose.  By  hatching  from  these 
he  can  soon  have  a  large  flock  at  little  extra  expense  over  the  cost 
of  mongrels. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  PURE  BREEDS  OVER  MONGRELS       99 

Cost  of  Keep  no  Greater —It  costs  no  more  to  keep  a  given  num- 
ber of  pure-bred  birds  than  it  does  to  keep  the  same  number  of 
mongrels.  The  requirements  for  maintenance  are  the  same  in 
each  case.  The  requirements  for  production  vary  in  different 
individuals,  according  to  their  amount  of  production,  and  vary  in 
one  class  the  same  as  in  another. 

More  Efficiency  from  Feeding— There  is  more  efficiency  from 
the  feed  consumed  when  pure-breds  are  kept,  for  a  breeder  will 
naturally  select  a  type  which  is  adapted  to  his  purpose,  as  eggs 
or  meat.  These  pure-bred  types  have  been  developed  and  selected 
with  a  purpose  in  view.  The  nature  of  that  particular  type  is  to 
bend  all  its  energy  toward  the  product  for  which  it  is  best  suited. 
For  example,  greater  efficiency  is  developed  from  feeding  Leg- 
horns when  eggs  are  desired  than  there  wouM  be  from  feeding 
Cochins  or  mongrels.  On  the  other  hand,  there'  would  be  greater 
economy  in  feeding  Brahmas  when  meat  is  the  object  than  there 
would  be  in  feeding  Leghorns  or  mongrels. 

Demand  for  Breeding  Purposes. — A  poultry  man  who  makes  a 
specialty  of  one  or  more  pure  breeds  and  develops  considerable 
ability  to  produce  good  birds  of  that  breed  finds  an  increasing 
demand  for  his  stock  and  eggs  for  breeding  purposes.  The  price 
received  for  them  under  such  conditions  is  always  considerably 
higher  than  for  market  purposes.  Even  when  he  makes  a  specialty 
of  breeding  for  some  commercial  product,  as  market  eggs  or  meat, 
he  can  always  dispose  Qf  surplus  cockerels,  yearling  hens,  and  a 
large  number  of  eggs  during  the  breeding  season,  at  a  greatly 
increased  price.  Any  breeder  who  does  not  consider  these  oppor- 
tunities and  take  advantage  of  them  is  not  getting  everything  out 
of  the  business  that  is  in  it. 

A  Greater  Selling  Value. — Pure-bred  poultry  will  always  be 
found  to  have  a  greater  selling  value,  whether  it  be  for  meat, 
eggs,  or  breeding  purposes.  The  same  care  devoted  to  a  standard- 
bred  flock  that  is  devoted  to  a  mixed  flock  would  result  in  a 
better  quality  of  meat,  in  eggs  more  nearly  uniform  and  a  greater 
number  of  them,  or  in  birds  which  have  a  relatively  higher  value 
as  breeding  stock. 

The  standard-bred  flock  has  come  to  the  American  farm  to 
stay.  It  has  been  shown  by  many  experiments  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  that  for  no  purpose  do  crossed  or  mongrel  birds  produce 
a  better  result  or  return  a  greater  revenue.  One  of  the  first  and 
best  assurances  of  success  is  to  start  with  standard-bred  birds. 


100  SELECTION  OF  STOCK 

Breed  Adapted  to  Purpose. — The  breed  which  best  fits  the 
market  requirements  for  the  product  desired  should  be  selected. 
The  requirements  of  a  market  demanding  a  good-sized,  white- 
shelled  egg  can  best  be  met  by  keeping  the  Single-comb  White 
Leghorn.  Where  a  full-meated  broiler  is  desired,  such  a  breed  as 
Wyandotte  or  Rhode  Island  Red  will  meet  conditions  to  the  best 
advantage.  Where  an  extremely  large  bird  for  meat  purposes  is 
the  aim,  as  for  large  roasters  or  capons,  no  better  selection  could 
be  made  than  the  Light  Brahma. 

The  breed,  however,  does  not  signify  everything.  Particular 
strains  of  the  same  breed  often  vary  more  than  different  breeds  of 
similar  general  type.  It  is  possible  after  the  first  selection  of  stock 
has  been  made  to  increase  continuously  the  efficiency  of  the  par- 
ticular. stfjjm1  ijpt^jid  by  careful  mating  and  continuous  rigid  selec- 
tion.' The*  first  point  for  consideration  should  be  the  exact  char- 
acter of  product  desired,  and  then  it  is  a  much  simpler  proposition 
to  find  a  breed  suited  to  that  purpose. 

Manner  of  Acquiring  Stock. — There  are  three  general  methods 
possible  in  securing  foundation  stock:  (1)  Purchasing  eggs  and 
hatching  them;  (2)  buying  the  birds  as  adults  or  before  they 
reach  maturity;  (3)  buying  day-old  chicks. 

In  the  first  plan  there  is  always  the  danger  of  getting  eggs  from 
birds  which  do  not  come  up  to  the  standard  set  by  the  purchaser, 
'and  the  danger  of  loss  during  incubation  and  brooding.  There  is 
expense  and  trouble  in  inspecting  the  stock  from  which  the  eggs 
came.  It  is  never  safe  to  buy  either  stock  or  eggs  from  flocks  which 
the  purchaser  has  not  personally  seen  or  in  some  manner  become 
acquainted  with. 

The  most  satisfactory  method,  where  time  will  permit,  is  to 
purchase  a  number  of  pure-bred  birds  of  the  type  desired,  usually 
in  the  fall,  and  mate  them  during  the  late  winter,  getting  them 
into  good  breeding  condition  by  spring,  so  that  a  maximum  number 
of  fertile  eggs  will  be  laid  during  the  breeding  season.  In  this  way 
a  large  flock  can  be  quickly  raised  from  parents  of  known  quality 
and  breeding,  the  cost  being  much  less  than  where  all  the  eggs 
must  be  purchased  at  high  prices. 

The  second  method  takes  a  little  more  time,  but  in  reality 
the  actual  breeding  and  improvement  of  the  flock  starts  sooner, 
and  definite  improvement  from  breeding  will  be  apparent  more 
quickly. 

A  third  plan  for  starting  in  the  poultry  business  is  quite  com- 


SELECTING  LIVE  BIRDS  101 

mon.  If  it  is  possible  to  purchase  day-old  chicks  from  a  reliable 
breeder,  this  means  can  safely  be  employed  to  get  an  immediate 
start  in  the  spring.  It  avoids  the  danger  of  loss  in  hatching,  yet 
puts  considerable  responsibility  upon  the  amateur  during  the 
brooding  season. 

In  starting  by  any  of  these  methods,  stock  of  only  reliable 
breeders  should  be  purchased,— breeders  who  are  known  for  the 
quality  of  their  birds.  Where  possible,  the  records  of  the  parent 
stock  purchased  should  be  studied  in  regard  to  production  and 
breeding. 

The  poultry  industry,  in  order  to  show  continued  improvement, 
must  be  developed  through  the  increased  quality  of  the  flock. 
In  order  to  bring  this  about,  the  individual  bird  must  be  made 
more  and  more  the  unit  of  study,  rather  than  the  total  produc- 
tion of  all  the  birds.  In  this  way  the  poor  producers  and  the 
barren  females  may  be  entirely  eliminated,  thus  bringing  about  a 
higher  average  production  for  less  birds  kept.  This  can  only  be 
done  by  breeding  each  year  from  the  best  birds,  and  continued 
selection  from  hatching  to  maturity,  keeping  only  the  best  for 
future  breeders. 

Selecting  Live  Birds. — When  selecting  the  birds  which  are  to 
be  the  parents  of  future  stock  the  following  points  should  be  con- 
sidered carefully: 

Health. — No  bird  should  be  purchased  or  used  in  the  breeding 
pen  which  has  ever  had  any  poultry  disease.  Some  diseases,  such 
as  white  diarrhoea  (Bacterium  polorown),  are  known  to  be  in- 
herited. Others,  such  as  tuberculosis,  enteritis,  and  roup,  weaken 
the  individual  constitutionally,  and  the  offspring  inherit  lack  of 
vitality.  This  makes  them  especially  susceptible  to  take  on  these 
same  diseases.  Any  affection  which  impairs  the  strength  or  vitality 
of  a  bird  makes  it  lose  just  so  much  and  impairs  it  for  use  as  a 
breeder.  It  should  be  established  beyond  a  doubt  that  all  the 
birds  selected  have  always  been  free  from  all  forms  of  disease  to 
which  they  are  subject. 

Age. — In  buying  birds  for  breeding,  yearlings  are  the  most 
desirable,  as  they  have  at  least  two  years  before  them  during  which 
their  eggs  can  be  profitably  used  for  hatching  purposes.  Pullets 
should  not  be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  their  eggs  run  smaller  in 
size,  and  therefore  hatch  chicks  which  are  smaller,  and  develop 
into  smaller  individuals  at  maturity.  Birds  of  exceptional  quality 
may  be  profitably  kept  for  breeding  purpose  as  long  as  they  lay 


102  SELECTION  OF  STOCK 

a  good  number  of  fertile  eggs  which  hatch  into  vigorous  chicks; 
but  the  purchase  of  such  individuals  is  rarely  profitable. 

Size. — The  stock  purchased  should  be  of  good  size  for  the  breed. 
Lack  of  size  is  usually  a  sign  of  improper  management  during 
growth,  of  forced  maturity  due  to  late  hatching,  or  of  an  inherited 
lack  of  vitality.  Any  one  of  these  should  stamp  the  bird  as  unsuit- 
able to  be  the  parent  of  profitable  layers  or  meat  producers.  The 
standard  weight  should  be  taken  as  a  guide,  and  excess  rather  than 
under  weight  is  to  be  preferred.  When  purchasing  cockerels,  an 
allowance  must  be  made  for  age.  'With  proper  development  they 
may  make  valuable  birds  in  the  breeding  pen. 

Weight. — In  the  choosing  of  birds  for  meat  purposes,  the  weight 
should  be  considered  above  size.  Large,  full-feathered  birds  may 
give  the  appearance  of  depth  and  height  but  show,  when  dressed, 
very  little  flesh  development  of  a  desirable  character.  In  extremely 
old  birds  (three  years  or  more)  excessive  weight  should  be  avoided 
in  the  heavy  breeds,  as  the  tendency  is  for  them  to  take  on  surplus 
fat  in  the  nature  of  fatty  deposits  rather  than  an  evenly  distributed 
fat  throughout  the  body.  This  makes  them  poor  layers,  with  a 
low  fertility  and  loss  of  vitality  to  the  offspring. 

Shape. — The  standard  shape  of  the  breed  chosen  should  be 
studied  and  selection  made  accordingly,  for  by  so  doing  the  progeny 
will  conform  more  closely  to  the  type  selected  and  more  nearly 
fit  the  purpose  desired.  Only  by  having  the  flock  uniform  in  shape 
can  they  be  considered  strictly  standard  bred.  By  constantly 
selecting  toward  one  shape,  a  greater  uniformity  will  be  gained  in 
appearance  and  character  of  meat  produced.  This  is  of  importance 
when  broilers  or  roasters  are  dressed  and  packed  for  fancy  or  high- 
class  trade. 

Color. — The  endeavor  should  be  made  to  have  the  color  of  the 
birds  selected  as  near  the  standard  requirements  as  possible.  It 
may  not  be  the  purpose  of  the  breeder  to  exhibit  his  birds  for 
fancy  points,  yet  the  added  attractiveness  and  appearance  of  his 
flock  will  warrant  a  constant  attempt  to  breed  the  birds  true  to 
color  markings  as  well  as  size  and  shape.  The  idea  in  selecting 
birds  should  be  to  combine  the  qualities  which  will  fit  them  for 
the  particular  purpose  in  view  and  at  the  same  time  show  the 
effect  of  breeding  and  selection  for  color,  thus  combining  the 
fancy  and  utility  sides  of  poultry  keeping  in  a  harmonious  and 
coordinate  way. 

Vigor. — Strong,    vigorous   constitutions   in   both   males   and 


REVIEW  103 

females  are  of  paramount  importance,  and  should  supersede  all 
other  considerations.  They  will  impart  vigor  to  their  progeny. 
It  is  this  characteristic  which  will  maintain  the  vitality  and  pro- 
ductive power  of  future  generations.  Care  in  the  selection  of  the 
foundation  stock  should  be  considered  first.  Without  that,  the 
best  of  management,  good  houses,  and  proper  feed  will  avail  little. 


REVIEW. 

1.  Define  the  term  pure  bred. 

2.  Give  ten  advantages  of  pure-bred  birds  over  mongrels. 

3.  Discuss  each  of  these  advantages. 

4.  Discuss  breed  selection  with  reference  to  object  desired. 

5.  Name  and  give  possibilities  of  three  methods  of  acquiring  stock. 

6.  Enumerate  seven  points  which  should  receive  careful  consideration  when 

selecting  live  birds. 

7.  Tell  of  the  importance  of  proper  care  in  the  selection  of  foundation  stock. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION. 

SUPPLYING  poultry  with  suitable  environment  is  one  of  the 
most  essential  features  of  poultry  management.  A  suitable  en- 
vironment means  the  right  kind  of  house  properly  located. 
Many  types  of  poultry  houses  are  in  use  throughout  the  country, 
representing  a  great  variety  of  ideas  and  theories.  This  diversity 
is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  amateurs  start  out  in  business  with 


FIG.  64. — Antiquated  type  of  poultry  house,  with  no  muslin  in  windows, 
ventilation  and  holds  the  moisture. 


Glass  prevents 


ideas  of  their  own,  and  incorporate  these  in  their  houses,  whether 
they  have  been  tested  and  found  desirable  or  not.  There  are  a 
few  simple  rules  or  principles  which  should  be  followed  in  the, 
construction  of  the  house,  and  there  are  a  number  of  different 
types  which  furnish  these  requirements.  There  is  no  one  best 
type,  suitable  under  all  conditions  and  for  all  sections  of  the  country. 
Recent  Changes. — There  have  been  marked  changes  and  rapid 
developments  in  the  perfection  of  poultry  houses.  It  was  formerly 
considered  necessary  to  have  a  perfectly  tight  house,  double 
boarded,  with  single  or  double  glass  sash  in  the  front  (Fig.  64). 
This  type  of  house  served  as  a  shelter  for  the  birds,  and  theoreti- 
cally would  keep  them  warm;  yet  in  practice  it  has  been  found 
104 


ESSENTIAL  FEATURES  105 

that  the  closed,  glass-front  house  was  easily  affected  by  changes  of 
outside  temperature  and  moisture,  unless  some  adequate  system 
of  ventilation  was  provided.  Such  a  house  could  not  supply  to 
the  birds  the  abundance  of  fresh  air  which  they  need  without 
causing  a  draft  to  blow  directly  upon  them. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  house  constructed  on  a  plan  entirely 
opposite  the  one  just  described  is  more  efficient.  All  up-to-date 
poultry  houses  provide  an  abundance  of  fresh  air  during  the  night, 
to  keep  the  birds  in  the  best  physical  condition.  This  is  being 
done  almost  entirely  by  the  use  of  "  muslin  fronts."  This  feature 
is  regarded  as  essential  and 
is  prevalent  throughout  the 
entire  United  States,  from 
Oregon  to  Maine  (Fig.  65). 

Thetypeof  poultry  house 
selected  should  be  adapted  to 
the  system  in  use:  (1)  The 
colony  system  requires, 
under  general  conditions,  a 
"house  conforming  to  the  size 

Of   the  flock    tO  be  kept  aS  a  FIG.  65.-  Modern  type  of  poultry  house  with 

unit  and  single-pen  construe-     both  muslin  and  glass  in  front'  providing  an 

.    ,  •    i  abundance  of  light  and  ventilation  without  drafts. 

tion,  with  or  without  scratch- 
ing shed.     (2)  The  semi-community  system  can  be  made  most 
profitable  by  using  a  double-pen  scratching  shed.    (3)  For  the  com- 
munity system  the  long  laying  house,  from  14  to  20  feet  in  depth, 
and  divided  into  pens  of  convenient  size,  is  the  type  most  employed. 

Before  building  or  planning  a  house,  the  needs  of  the  birds  and 
the  means  of  attaining  them  should  be  studied  carefully  to  deter- 
mine just  what  type  of  construction  will  meet  the  conditions  best. 
The  principles  involved  will  hold  true  under  all  conditions.  Some 
variations  must  be  made  to  suit  extreme  temperature  or  moisture 
conditions. 

Essential  Features. — The  features  of  a  good  design  may  be 
enumerated  as  follows:  (1)  Economy;  (2)  convenience;  (3)  sun- 
light; (4)  freedom  from  moisture;  (5)  abundance  of  ventilation; 
(6)  plenty  of  room;  (7)  protection  from  excessive  heat  or  cold; 
(8)  proof  against  rats  and  mice;  (9)  sanitation. 

Economy  of  Construction. — It  is  not  always  necessary  to  pur- 
chase all  new  lumber  for  poultry  houses.  Often  old  farm  buildings 
or  second-hand  lumber  can  be  utilized  to  good  advantage.  Only 


106        PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

sound  boards  and  timbers  should  be  used.  In  many  cases  there 
are  buildings  about  the  farm  which,  with  little  expense  for  material, 
can  be  remodelled  into  efficient  poultry  houses  by  laying  a 
moisture-proof  floor  and  by  providing  openings  for  muslin  curtains 
and  a  suitably  sheltered  roosting  place. 

When  purchasing  new  lumber,  a  good  sill  and  frame  is  impor- 
tant to  insure  permanence  and  rigidity.  The  very  best  grade  of 
lumber  is  not  necessary  for  roofing  boards  and  side  walls.  One  of 
the  most  economical  methods  of  construction  is  to  build  the  roof 
and  side  walls  of  tongued  and  grooved  material,  yellow  pine 
"  seconds  "  being  satisfactory.  The  roof  and  back  wall  are  then 
covered  with  a  good  grade  of  prepared  roofing  paper. 

Elaborate  planning,  expensive  construction,  and  fancy  trim- 
mings have  a  tendency  to  reduce  economy  and  efficiency.  The 
comfort  of  the  birds  is  not  increased  by  such  practice. 

Convenience, — In  planning  the  house,  thought  should  be  given 
to  practical  labor-saving  devices — such  as  double  swinging  doors 
between  the  pens,  with  friction  stops;  curtains  which  are  easily 
and  quickly  raised  or  lowered;  large,  self-feeding  hoppers  for  dry 
mash,  which  will  require  filling  but  once  a  week  at  the  most; 
drinking  vessels  which  are  easily  and  quickly  cleaned  and  filled; 
dropping  boards  which  are  easily  and  perfectly  cleaned;  nests 
which  are  easy  of  access;  and  an  inside  finish  which  can  be  quickly 
and  easily  cleaned.  Convenience  in  removing  litter  and  manure 
and  in  supplying  new  litter  is  important.  Facility  in  collection  of 
eggs  should  be  considered. 

Elaborate  mechanical  devices  which  are  designed  to  save  labor, 
and  do  automatically  much  that  should  be  done  by  the  attendant, 
do  not  as  a  rule  prove  practical,  or  furnish  suitable  conditions 
for  the  birds  that  are  kept  in  such  houses. 

Sunlight  should  penetrate  every  part  of  the  house  as  much  of 
the  day  as  possible.  Sunlight  is  a  perfect  germ  destroyer,  purify- 
ing the  parts  of  the  house  where  it  shines,  besides  adding  warmth 
and  making  surroundings  more  congenial.  It  acts  as  a  tonic  to 
the  birds  during  the  short  winter  days  and  induces  a  heavier  pro- 
duction. 

The  house  should  be  placed  so  that  the  sun  will  shine  in  at 
the  openings  every  possible  hour  of  the  day  during  the  winter 
months.  The  openings  in  the  front  should  be  of  good  height,  and 
so  placed  that  they  will  allow  of  a  complete  distribution  of  the 
sunlight  in  the  house  throughout  the  day.  If  possible,  the  entire 


ESSENTIAL  FEATURES  107 

floor  of  the  house  should  receive  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  at  some 
time  during  each  day  (Fig.  66). 

Freedom  from  Moisture. —Three  kinds  of  moisture  are  frequently 
present  in  poultry  houses  where  layers  are  kept:  (1)  Atmospheric 
moisture,  (2)  condensation  moisture,  and  (3)  soil  moisture. 

Atmospheric  moisture  is  always  bad  if  the  room  is  poorly 
ventilated. 


SunM 


Summit* 


&,22  of  the  ye 


Sunlight 


FIG.  66. — Floor  of  standard  multiple-unit  laying  house,  showing  distribution  of  sunlight 
at  different  seasons,  sun  elevation  at  10  o'clock. 

Condensation  moisture  is  caused  by  the  moisture  condensing 
from  the  air  and  hanging  in  drops  from  the  roof  and  rafters.  This 
is  sometimes  caused  by  lack  of  sufficient  head  room,  but  more  often 
by  insufficient  fresh  air.  A  concrete  or  solid  masonry  bank  wall  is 
very  damp,  as  it  acts  as  a  wick,  sucking  outside  moisture  through 
during  wet  weather.  This  condition  can  be  corrected  by  replacing 
glass  sash  in  the  front  with  muslin,  thus  insuring  circulation. 


108        PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

Soil  moisture  has  a  tendency  to  work  under  the  foundation 
and  up  through  the  floor,  dampening  the  litter.  This  should  be 
corrected  by  the  construction  of  proper  drains  under  the  foundation 
when  the  house  is  built.  A  properly  constructed  concrete  floor 
will  keep  out  much  soil  moisture,  as  it  is  impervious  to  water.  This 
is  made  with  a  layer  of  tar  paper  or  tar  paint  beneath  the  finish 
coat  of  cement. 

Ventilation. — The  house  should  be  well  ventilated,  without 
causing  drafts  to  blow  directly  on  the  birds.  An  abundance  of 
oxygen  is  essential  if  the  birds  are  to  perform  their  normal  body 
functions.  When  a  large  number  are  continually  crowded  to- 
gether in  close  quarters  during  the  entire  winter,  as  is  the  case  in 
most  commercial  laying  houses,  a  large  amount  of  fresh  air  is 
required.  This  can  best  be  supplied  by  the  use  of  muslin  curtains 
in  the  front  of  the  house,  thus  allowing  at  all  times  fresh  air  to 
pass  in,  and  the  moist,  foul  air  to  pass  out.  This  change  takes  place 
without  any  drafts  or  rapid  movements  of  air,  the  muslin  acting 
as  a  sieve  or  buffer.  In  extremely  cold  sections,  with  birds  not 
naturally  suited  to  stand  extremely  low  temperature,  it  is  advis- 
able to  have  a  second  muslin  curtain  suspended  in  front  of  the 
roosting  quarters  to  conserve  the  heat  given  off  by  their  bodies  at 
night. 

In  the  coldest  climates  special  air  shafts  on  the  plan  of  King 
ventilators  are  sometimes  used  successfully  instead  of  muslin  cur- 
tains, or  in  combination  with  them.  The  out-take  shaft  is  most 
essential.  It  may  consist  of  a  six-inch  galvanized  stove-pipe  ex- 
tending from  near  the  floor  up  through  the  highest  point  of  the 
roof  and  projecting  two  feet  or  more  above  it.  This  pipe  will  be 
large  enough  for  fifty  fowls,  and  will  take  out  the  bad  air  and  mois- 
ture if  fresh  air  is  allowed  to  enter  through  an  in-take  pipe  or  a 
small  muslin  curtain. 

A  properly  ventilated  house  will  mean  healthy  birds,  and  less 
labor  will  be  needed  in  keeping  the  house  clean  (Fig.  67). 

Plenty  of  Room  for  Exercise. — Exercise  is  essential  for  the  health 
of  the  birds,  and  to  keep  them  from  taking  on  too  much  surplus 
fat,  which  would  be  detrimental  to  heavy  egg  production.  This 
latter  purpose  is  important  with  the  heavier  breeds  during  the 
second  and  third  year.  Exercise  can  best  be  provided  by  the 
feeding  of  grain  rations  in  deep  litter  on  the  floor. 

The  number  of  birds  which  can  safely  be  kept  in  a  house  of 
given  dimensions  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  breed  and  upon 


ESSENTIAL  FEATURES 


109 


the  experience  of  the  poultryman  caring  for  them.  Under  general 
conditions  it  is  safest  for  the  amateur  or  for  the  one  with  little 
experience  not  to  crowd  the  birds  too  closely, — about  one  bird  to 
every  four  and  a  half  or  five  square  feet  of  floor  space.  The  expert 
who  thoroughly  understands  the  needs  and  methods  of  sanitation 
can  successfully  keep  as  high  as  one  bird  to  every  two  and  one-half 
or  three  square  feet  of  floor  space.  A  desirable  area  for  birds 
under  close  confinement  during  the  winter  months,  when  a  heavy 
egg  yield  is  desirable,  is  approximately  four  square  feet  per  bird. 


jrIG  67 — An  efficient  rear  ventilator  for  summer  use.  It  allows  the  air  to  enter  the 
back  of  the  house,  and  circulate  between  the  sheathing  and  the  roof,  cooling  the  roosting 
quarters  on  summer  nights.  This  is  most  valuable  for  shed-roofed  houses  that  are  covered 
with  paper. 

Excessive  Heat  and  Cold. — Protect  the  birds  from  cold,  but  do 
not  keep  ihem  too  hot.  Birds  will  stand  a  great  degree  of  cold; 
they  do  better  in  cold  quiet  air  than  in  warmer  drafty  air.  This 
latter  condition  is  generally  the  starting  point  of  colds  which  may 
develop  into  forms  of  roup,  quickly  putting  the  birds  out  of  laying 
condition.  The  house  should  be  so  constructed  that  at  any  time 
the  temperature  will  never  get  low  enough  to  freeze  the  combs. 
This  condition  will  vary  with  (1)  the  breed  kept,  (2)  the  vitality 
of  the  birds,  (3)  the  scratching  or  other  exercise,  and  (4)  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  house. 

Large-comb  breeds  must  be  given  better  protection  and  warmer 


110        PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

houses  than  small-  or  close-comb  breeds.  Birds  of  low  vitality 
with  poor  circulation  will  be  much  more  liable  to  freeze  their 
combs  than  those  of  high  vitality.  A  cold,  damp  atmosphere  will 
do  more  damage  than  a  cold,  dry  atmosphere.  The  house  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  temperature  of  the  birds'  bodies  may  be 
conserved.  At  night  during  very  cold  weather  the  use  of  muslin 
drop-curtains  in  front  of  the  perches  is  sometimes  helpful. 

Any  arrangement  which  will  make  it  possible  to  cool  the  house 
off  during  the  hot  summer  nights  will  be  very  desirable.  One 
method  used  is  to  provide  a  small  hinged  opening  in  the  back  of 
the  house  which  when  open  allows  the  air  to  circulate  freely 
between  the  ceiling  and  roof  over  the  roosting  quarters. 

Rats  and  Mice. — The  house  should  be  built,  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible, to  be  proof  against  rats  and  mice.  These  enemies  are  often 
a  source  of  great  loss.  The  cost  of  a  good  concrete  floor  will  often 
be  saved  in  one  year  by  keeping  out  rats.  The  protection  against 
rats  affords  great  saving  in  the  feed  bill,  for  a  family  of  full-grown 
rats  will  eat  or  waste  as  much  dry  mash  as  a  flock  of  twenty-five 
laying  hens. 

Sanitation, — The  internal  construction  of  the  house  should  be 
as  plain  as  possible.  If  matched  lumber  is  used,  it  offers  less 
hiding-places  for  bacteria,  lice,  and  mites,  so  that  a  spraying  with 
a  good  disinfecting  solution  will  reach  all  possible  hiding  places. 
All  internal  fixtures,  such  as  nests  and  perches,  should  be  made 
movable,  so  that  they  can  be  taken  out  of  the  house  and  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected. 

Size  and  Type  of  House. — The  exact  form  of  house  has  a 
definite  influence  on  the  cost  of  construction.  The  type  selected 
will  be  determined  by  the  number  of  birds  to  be  kept  and  by  the 
character  of  the  land  upon  which  it  is  to  be  located.  The  small 
colony  house  costs  more  for  its  capacity  than  the  continuous 
house.  In  the  latter  a  light  door  or  muslin  partition  answers  for 
two  outside  end  walls.  Aside  from  the  importance  of  economy  of 
construction,  the  colony  house  is  colder,  having  more  surface 
exposed  to  the  varying  weather  conditions,  and  more  labor  is 
required  to  care  for  the  birds  kept  in  them.  The  larger  the  house 
and  the  larger  the  flock,  the  less  will  be  the  cost  per  bird  for 
shelter  and  labor  in  caring  for  them.  There  are  three  different 
designs  into  which  all  types  of  poultry  houses  might  logically  be 
grouped:  (1)  The  small  single-pen  colony  house.  (2)  The  long, 
continuous  house  of  two  or  more  pens.  (3)  The  large  single-unit 


MATERIALS  FOR  LAYING  HOUSES 


111 


house,  ranging  from  fourteen  to  twenty  feet  deep  and  from  forty 
to  over  one  hundred  feet  long  where  large  numbers  are  kept  in  one 
flock.  The  last  is  the  most  economical  unit  where  eggs  are  of 
primary  consideration  (Fig.  68). 

Simplicity  of  Design. — In  planning  and  building  poultry  houses 
it  should  be  the  idea  to  have  the  design  and  construction  as  simple 
as  possible.  All  extra  trimming  and  ornamental  features  add 
greatly  to  the  cost  and  do  not  enhance  the  efficiency.  Quality  in 
construction  should  also  be  considered,  to  make  all  permanent 
buildings  as  durable  as  possible.  Movable  structures  of  small 

Long  ffovse 


-  12. 

0'  

j» 

Co2ony  House 

700 


•Smalt   Co2ori 


riy 

' 


FIG.  68. — Three  types  of  laying  houses.  The  long  house  is  used  for  small-unit  flocks 
with  intensive  methods  for  breeding  purposes.  The  large  colony  house  is  for  large  flocks 
for  market  eggs.  The  small  colony  house  is  used  for  breeding  in  small  flocks. 

size  should  be  built  strong  enough  to  stand  the  handling  and  mov- 
ing to  which  they  are  subjected.  In  some  sections  it  is  the  practice 
to  build  extremely  cheap  houses  directly  on  the  ground;  in  such 
cases  the  walls  and  posts  rot  and  the  building  is  not  very  long  lived. 
This  practice  cannot  be  generally  recommended,  but  it  may  prove 
practical  where  low-grade  lumber  can  be  secured  at  low  prices. 

Materials  for  Laying  Houses.— Materials  used  for  poultry 
houses  are:  Wood,  hollow  tile,  brick,  concrete  blocks,  and  solid 
concrete,  The  first  two  are  the  only  ones  which  prove  good  for 
the  laying  house.  Brick  and  concrete  walls  are  apt  to  make  the 
interior  of  the  house  damp  and  cold  in  the  winter.  Roup  has  been 
very  prevalent  where  the  walls  were  of  concrete.  Concrete-block 


112       PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

houses  have  been  used  successfully,  but  they  are  expensive  both 
as  to  cost  of  material  and  labor,  and  are  not  so  dry  as  houses  built 
of  wood  or  tile.  In  most  locations  and  under  most  conditions  the 
use  of  wood  with  a  shingled  or  paper-covered  roof  would  be  the 
most  economical  and  furnish  the  best  conditions.  The  house  of 
tile  with  stucco  finish  offers  favorable  conditions  for  laying  hens, 
but  the  cost  is  about  one-third  more  than  where  wood  is  used. 

Height  of  House. — A  low  house,  provided  it  allows  head  room 
for  the  attendant,  is  more  economical  to  construct,  easier  to  warm, 
retains  heat  better,  and  suffers  less  from  various  changes  in  outside 
weather  than  does  the  higher  house.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  the 


FIQ.  69. — Diagram  showing  lines  of  sun's  rays  in  September  and  December.  The  front 
of  the  house  is  8  ft.  6  in.  high  and  the  back  4  ft.  6  in.  high,  with  a  width  from  front  to  back 
of  20  feet. 

house  high  enough  so  that  all  work  can  be  done  by  the  attendant 
without  danger  of  striking  his  head  against  the  rafters.  With  a 
muslin  front,  this  height  will  provide  ample  air  for  as  many  birds 
as  the  floor  space  will  accommodate  (Fig.  69). 

Shape  of  the  House. — The  nearer  the  house  approaches  a  square 
the  less  lumber  will  be  required  to  build  it;  therefore,  the  deeper 
the  house,  all  things  considered,  the  more  economical  its  construc- 
tion (Fig.  70) .  Poultry  houses  which  are  built  very  narrow  require 
a  front  and  back  wall  of  nearly  the  same  height  as  a  much  deeper 
house.  The  only  extra  expense  in  the  deeper  house  is  the  extension 
of  the  roof  and  part  of  the  end  walls.  To  increase  the  depth  from 
front  to  back  would  give  a  greater  floor  space  with  less  cost  per 
square  foot  of  floor  space ;  this  would  mean  less  cost  per  bird.  The 
limit  to  the  depth  of  the  house  should  be  determined,  in  large  part, 
by  the  facility  with  which  the  sunlight  can  get  into  the  back  part. 


STANDARD  POULTRY-HOUSE  UNIT 


113 


A  depth  of  twenty  feet  in  a  shed-roof  type  of  construction  is 

deep  enough ;  a  greater  depth 

requires  a  half-monitor  roof, 

which  has  many  undesirable     ***p^fla»^    so' Around 

features  (Fig.  72). 


82'Aroiaid 


NOTE. — The  nearer  the  rect- 
angle approaches  a  square  the 
smaller  will  be  its  perimeter,  the 
area  remaining  the  same. 

Standard  Poultry-house 
Unit. — The  use  of  a  standard 
unit  of  known  capacity  gives 
a  basis  from  which  to  work 
in  extending  the  plant.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  vary  it 
considerably.  For  the  shed- 
roof  type  of  construction,  one 
of  the  most  economical  units 

is    a  rOOm   twenty   by  twenty      shape   approaches  a  square   the  perimeter  be- 

feet.    If  it  is  high  enough  to    comes  shorter' 

give  ample  amount  of  head  room  for  the  attendant,,  there  will  be 
Five  Unite,  capacity  5OO  birds 


/OO' Around 


FIG.  70. — Shapes  of  houses  compared,  show- 
ing the  requirements  of  wall  material.    As  the 


100' 


Z>ouble  Unit,  capacity  ZOO  birds 

, 40' --» 


Sinyte  Unit,  capacity  /OO  birds 

20' —  — ' 


FIG.  71. — The  possible  growth  of  the  multiple-unit  plan,— single,  then  double,  and  an 
indefinite  future  increase. 


114        PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


sunlight  in  the  back  part  of  the  house  and  the  floor  space  is  very 
large.  Such  a  unit  will  have  a  capacity  of  one  hundred  birds,  allow- 
ing four  square  feet  per  bird;  it  is  adapted  to  all  climates  where  poul- 
try are  commercially  kept  in  the  United  States,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
efficient  producing  units.  This  unit  is  adapted  to  both  the  intensive 
poultry  farm  and  the  general  farm  where  large  flocks  are  kept. 
The  capacity  of  houses  with  this  unit  can  be  increased  indefinitely 
by  the  addition  of  other  such  units.  For  example,  if  five  units 
were  used  the  house  would  be  twenty  by  one  hundred  feet  and 
would  have  a  capacity  of  five  hundred  birds  (Fig.  71). 

Type  of  Roof. — The  type  or  form  of  roof  should  be  studied 
carefully,  as  it  is  the  most  expensive  part  of  the  house.  It  usually 
covers  only  one  floor,  and  must  be  made  water  tight  and  strong 


SHED 


TWO -THIRDS  SPAN 


EVEN  SPAN 


HIP 


FIG.  72. — Six  types  of  roofs  for  poultry  houses.    The  shed  roof  is  most  common 
and  is  the  best. 

enough  to  support  heavy  snows  and  windstorms.  The  accompany- 
ing sketch  (Fig.  72)  shows  six  different  types  of  roofs  used  for 
poultry  houses.  Each  of  these  has  a  variety  of  uses.  There  is 
much  difference  in  the  lumber  and  labor  required  to  build  the  dif- 
ferent types.  Care  should  be  used  to  build  the  best  and  get  the 
most  economical  type.  The  three^  which  offer  the  best  conditions 
in  most  instances  are  the  shed  roof,  the  two-thirds  span,  and  the 
even-span  or  gable  roof.  In  these  three  types  of  roofs  with  a  uni- 
form floor  space  and  equal  pitch,  the  amount  of  material  is  about 
the  same. 

In  actual  practice  it  is  possible  to  construct  the  shed  roof  with 
less  pitch.  When  this  is  done,  the  shed  roof  is  the  most  economical, 
requiring  less  labor  to  erect;  a  higher  front  is  possible,  which  enables 


TYPE  OF  ROOF 


115 


a  greater  amount  and  better  distribution  of  sunlight.  All  the  roof 
water  is  carried  to  the  rear;  this  does  away  with  half  the  amount  of 
eave  troughs  required  on  a  two-pitch  roof,  and  keeps  the  front  of 
the  house  dry  and  clean.  A  shed-roof  house  is  also  much  cooler 
m  summer;  the  slope  of  the  roof,  being  toward  the  north,  does  not 
receive  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun.  The  shed  roof  is  well  adapted 
to  any  house  twenty  feet  or  less  in  width.  The  greater  width  is 
most  economical.  In  such  construction  a  central  girder  or  purlin 
should  reach  the  entire  length  of  the  house,  with  posts  every  ten 
feet,  to  support  the  roof  (Fig.  73). 

A  gable  roof  provides  garret  space,  which  can  be  stuffed  with 
straw  to  make  the  house  dryer  and  warmer;  but  it  increases  the 
amount  of  labor  and  offers  a  hiding  place  for  mites  and  parasites. 


FIG.  73. — A  well-framed  poultry  house. 

The  combination  or  two-thirds  span  roof  is  often  used,  where 
it  is  desired  to  have  an  alley  in  the  back  of  the  house,  as  more 
head  room  can  be  obtained  in  the  back  portion  of  the  house  with- 
out having  excessive  height  in  front.  This  type  requires  more 
labor  to  build,  as  there  is  much  more  fitting  and  sawing  to  be  done. 

For  houses  greater  than  twenty  feet  in  width,  the  half-monitor 
type  of  roof  is  the  most  desirable,  and  especially  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  central  work  alley  with  pens  on  both  sides.  The 
upper  window  allows  the  sun  to  penetrate  to  the  back  half  of  the 
house  and  gives  an  abundance  of  ventilation.  This  type  of  house 
is  apt  to  be  cold  in  the  winter,  as  the  warm  air  rises  and  comes  in 
contact  with  the  cold  glass  in  the  peak  and  cools  rapidly.  This 
can  be  partially  counteracted  by  stretching  muslin  over  the  inside 
of  the  sash  to  keep  the  warm  air  from  circulating  directly  against 
the  glass. 

The  A-roof  is  a  very  economical  method  of  covering  a  given 


116       PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

floor  space,  but  has  not  been  used  to  any  great  extent,  as  it  does 
not  provide  ample  head  room.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  small, 
single-pen  houses  where  small  flocks  are  kept,  if  it  is  not  necessary 
to  enter  the  house  to  perform  all  the  work. 

Foundation. — An  efficient  foundation  adds  durability  and  aids 
in  keeping  the  house  dry.  The  materials  used  are  brick,  stone, 
concrete,  and  wooden  posts.  Posts  of  locust,  cedar,  or  other 
durable  wood  may  be  used  on  a  stone  or  cinder  footing.  They 
are  apt  to  settle  and  are  not  so  durable  as  masonry  walls.  They  do 


FIG.  74. — Four  plans  for  foundation  and  floor  construction.  A,  Floor  flush  with  top 
of  sill;  B,  finished  floor  flush  with  bottom  of  sill,  the  latter  being  laid  in  cement;  C,  founda- 
tion wall  extending  above  floor  level;  D,  construction  suitable  for  board  floor. 

not  aid  in  keeping  out  rats.  The  most  efficient  plan  is  a  solid  wall 
of  masonry.  The  foundation  should  be  built  deep  enough  to  pre- 
vent heaving  by  frost  and  to  help  keep  out  water.  >It  should  sup- 
port the  building  without  any  settling.  '  The  foundation  should  also 
be  economical  as  to  cost  of  labor  and  material.  A  brick  or  stone 
wall,  especially  the  former,  is  expensive  from  a  standpoint  of 
labor,  as  the  brick  and  stone  have  to  be  laid  in  mortar  by  experi- 
enced masons.  Stone  or  brick  walls  built  loose  are  not  permanent 
and,  therefore,  not  desirable.  The  concrete  foundation,  if  properly 
built,  furnishes  the  most  durable  wall.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  underdrainage  deep  enough,  the  foundation  course  prop- 
erly tamped,  and  the  mixtures  rich  in  cement  (Fig.  74). 


FLOOR  117 

A  good  foundation  is  made  as  follows:  A  trench  is  dug  about 
one  foot  wide  and  from  two  to  three  feet  deep,  depending  on  the 
climate  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  bottom  should  be  filled 
to  a  depth  of  one  foot  with  loose  stones  or  cinders  to  give  drainage. 
The  rest  is  filled  with  concrete,  the  wall  being  carried  about  six 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Bolts  are  imbedded  in  it 
every  fifteen  feet,  to  later  hold  the  sill  in  place. 

Floor.— There  are  three  different  types  of  floors  used,— earth, 
wood,  and  concrete.  In  deciding  which  one  of  these  floors  to  use, 
the  following  factors  are  to  be  considered:  (1)  Dryness;  (2)  a 
smooth,  hard  surface  which  can  be  easily  cleaned;  (3)  rat  and 
mouse  proof;  (4)  economy  of  construction. 

The  floors  should  be  a  few  inches  above  the  outside  grade  so 
that  surface  water  will  not  run  into  the  house.  An  improperly 
constructed  floor  means  damp  houses  and  an  unhealthy  flock. 
The  earth  floor  is  not  generally  desirable,  because  soil  water  is 
brought  to  the  surface  by  capillary  action,  and  there  is  the  possi- 
bility of  surface  water  soaking  under  the  foundation  and  dampen- 
ing the  litter  or  flooding  the  floor. 

On  high,  well-drained  sandy  soils  with  a  low  water  table,  the 
earth  floors  prove  satisfactory;  but  it  is  necessary,  if  the  house  is 
to  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  to  expend  an  excessive  amount  of  labor 
in  cleaning  at  frequent  intervals  by  removing  four  or  five  inches  of 
top  soil  and  replacing  it  with  clean  sand.  Even  with  this  precau- 
tion there  is  always  danger  of  disease  germs  lurking  in  the  soil  and 
at  some  future  time  causing  infection. 

Board  floors  are  undesirable,  for  the  following  reasons:  They 
rot  out  quickly  if  they  are  not  raised  above  the  ground  so  as  to 
allow  the  air  to  circulate  freely  under  them.  If  raised  very  high 
the  house  is  much  colder,  which  is  not  desirable  in  winter.  If  the 
floors  are  raised  only  a  few  inches  above  the  ground,  they  offer 
harbor  for  rats.  They  are  also  hard  to  keep  clean,  no  matter  how 
carefully  they  are  constructed,  as  there  are  always  crevices  which 
offer  hiding  places  for  lice  and  mites  and  disease  germs. 

A  cement  floor,  if  properly  constructed,  offers  ideal  conditions, 
and  it  is  unquestionably  the  most  desirable  for  laying  houses.  It 
is  absolutely  moisture-proof  if  it  has  the  moisture  insulation,  prac- 
tically rat-proof,  easily  cleaned,  and  quickly  and  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. It  costs  no  more  to  build  than  a  good  wooden  floor  and 
remains  good  for  all  future  time. 

The  following  construction  for  concrete  floors  is  recommended: 


118        PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

Excavate  the  soil  inside  of  the  house  to  a  depth  of  at  least  eight 
inches  below  the  top  of  the  foundation  wall,  place  a  layer  of  crushed 
stone,  cinders,  or  coarse  gravel  about  eight  inches  thick  over  the 
bottom,  tamping  thoroughly  and  leaving  it  level.  Over  this  place 
a  rough  coat  of  concrete  about  three  inches  thick,  made  by  mixing 
one  part  of  good  cement  with  three  parts  of  fine  sharp  sand  and 
five  parts  of  coarse  gravel  or  cinders.  Put  one  thickness  of  tarred 
building  paper  over  the  rough  coat  while  fresh,  lapping  and  cement- 
ing the  seams,  nailing  it  down  every  two  feet  with  roofing  nails, 
letting  the  heads  stick  out  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  hold  the 
finish  coat.  One  inch  of  finish  coat  should  be  laid  over  the  paper. 
This  is  composed  of  one  part  of  cement  to  three  parts  of  coarse  sand. 

Material  for  Framing. — The  frame  should  be  built  of  material 
large  enough  to  give  rigidity  to  the  building,  and  yet  not  so  heavy 
as  greatly  to  increase  the  cost.  For  a  laying  house  twenty  feet  or 
less  in  width,  2x6  inch  lumber  doubled  should  be  used  for  sills, 
firmly  bolted  to  the  foundation.  Hemlock,  yellow  pine,  chestnut, 
or  other  material  of  equal  grade  may  be  used.  The  lumber  used 
depends  upon  the  kind  which  is  the  cheapest  in  the  vicinity.  For 
studding  use  2x4  inch  pieces,  and  double  these  for  corner  posts. 
The  plates  are  best  constructed  of  2  x  4  inch  material  doubled, 
spiking  them  together  and  breaking  joints.  One  great  advantage 
of  double  sills  and  plates  is  the  possibility  of  strengthening  weak 
places  and  of  correcting  any  crooked  or  warped  timbers  that  might 
be  used.  For  rafters  use  2x6  inch  material  for  anything  greater 
than  ten-foot  spans,  2x4  inch  being  sufficiently  strong  for  any- 
thing under  that  length.  For  a  purlin  or  girder  in  a  wide  house 
2x6  inch  material  is  used.  For  all  light  partitions  2x3  inch 
material  is  heavy  enough,  and  this  may  be  laid  flat.  The  rafters 
and  studding  should  be  placed  not  more  than  two  feet  apart, — 
better,  sixteen  inches.  If  the  outside  boards  run  up  and  down,  the 
studding  may  be  six  feet  apart,  with  2x4  inch  intermediates 
parallel  with  the  sill  (Fig.  84). 

Walls  and  Partitions. — A  necessary  feature  in  the  construction 
of  walls  is  to  have  them  tight,  to  eliminate  the  danger  of  drafts. 
One  of  the  best  materials  which  can  be  used  is  tongue-and-groove 
boards,  securely  driven  together.  It  is  not  well  to  use  boards 
greater  than  eight  inches  in  width,  as  they  are  apt  to  warp,  and 
when  they  dry  out  leave  open  spaces.  If  siding  boards  are  used, 
the  lap  or  "  novelty  "  siding  makes  tight  walls,  leaving  a  smooth 
inside  wall.  If  shingles  are  used  on  the  outside  of  the  walls,  a 


DOORS 


119 


tight  board  wall  should  be  laid  first,  so  that  the  house  can  be  easily 
cleaned  and  kept  free  from  vermin;  it  will  greatly  increase  warmth 
in  the  winter.  When  it  is  desired  to  line  the  inside  back  wall  of 
the  house,  tongue-and-groove  boards  are  the  best.  They  should 
be  free  from  extra  beading.  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  ceil  inside 
the  roof  of  the  poultry  house,  except  perhaps  over  the  roosting 
places  in  cold  climates. 

In  the  construction  of  intermediate  walls  or  partitions,  a  good 
method  is  to  board  the  bottom  part  about  thirty  inches  solid,  the 
remaining  distance  being  covered  with  wire  or  cloth.  The  use 
of  cloth  makes  the  building  cheaper,  but  is  less  durable  and  collects 
dust.  In  houses  over  forty  feet  long,  one  cross  partition  or  more 
should  be  put  in  to  prevent  a  draft  blowing  through  the  house. 


FIG.  75. — Four  styles'  of  doors  for  poultry  houses.  A,  Brooder  house  door,  cut  in  the 
centre  so  that  the  top  half  only  need  be  opened,  providing  ventilation  but  preventing  floor 
draft;  B,  door  hung  to  swing  both  ways;  C,  double  doors  for  use  where  overhead  trolleys 
are  used;  D,  sliding  door. 

Doors. — All  doors  in  laying  houses  should  be  large  enough  to 
permit  the  attendant  to  pass  through  quickly  with  feed  and  water. 
They  should  admit  of  easy  opening  and  closing  with  a  minimum 
loss  of  time.  They  should  be  so  placed  that  the  work  can  be  done 
with  the  least  possible  retracing  of  steps,  and  should  be  strong 
and  durable,  as  they  are  much  used.  The  doors  between  pens 
should  be  arranged  in  a  straight  line,  hinging  on  one  side  with 
double-action  spring  hinges,  so  that  they  may  be  opened  from  either 
side  and  will  close  automatically  as  the  attendant  passes  through, 
being  held  in  place  by  friction  stops.  All  doors  should  be  raised 
above  the  floor  at  least  eight  inches,  so  that  in  opening  and  closing 
they  will  be  clear  of  the  litter  on  the  floor.  The  sketch  shows 
types  and  methods  of  hanging  poultry  doors  (Fig.  75). 


120        PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


Windows  and  Curtains. — Window  and  curtain  openings  in  the 
poultry  house  are  valuable,  in  that  they  admit  sunlight  and  fresh  air, 
cleansing  the  house,  and  making  it  a  congenial  place  for  the  birds. 
They  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  opened  quickly  and 
easily,  and  the  danger  of  breakage  thus  reduced  to  a  minimum. 


20' 


Too   narrow  and  too  low 


Correct  position 
of  openzriy^ 

Insufficient  in  amount  and  too  low 

FIG.  76. — Three  plans  for  placing  openings  in  front  wall  of  poultry  houses. 

Sunlight  is  necessary  to  the  fowls,  but  too  much  glass  makes 
the  house  cold  at  night  and  too  warm  in  the  daytime.  An  excessive 
amount  of  glass  makes  the  house  too  expensive.  A  good  rule  for 
large  houses  using  muslin  openings  is  to  allow  one  square  foot  of 


WINDOWS  AND  CURTAINS 


121 


glass  to  every  sixteen  square  feet  of  floor  space,  or  one  square  foot 
for  every  four  birds.  The  amount  of  muslin  can  be  determined 
by  allowing  double  the  number  of  square  feet  that  there  is  glass, 
or  one  square  foot  of  muslin  to  every  eight  square  feet  of  floor  space. 
The  windows  should  be  placed  high  up  in  front  and  run  vertically 
rather  than  be  horizontal.  In  this  way  the  sun's  rays  will  have  a 
chance  to  sweep  across  the  entire  floor  at  some  time  of  the  day, 
drying  and  purifying  the  entire  area  (Fig.  76).  The  sunlight 
is  most  needed  in  the  winter  when  the  sun  is  lowest.  In  the 
summer  the  hot  noontime  sun  is  kept  out  by  a  projecting  roof 
(Fig.  89). 

The  direct  rays  of  the  sun  should  strike  all  of  the  floor  area 
possible  (Fig.  66),  but  it  is  not  practicable  to  have  the  house  high 
enough  to  let  the  direct  rays  strike  the  dropping  boards  at  the 


FIG.  77. — Types  of  poultry  windows.  A,  Hinged  at  the  side  and  opening  inward,  the 
method  preferred;  B,  sliding  window;  C,  hinged  at  the  top  and  opening  outward;  D,  upper 
sash  hinged  at  the  top  and  opening  outward  and  lower  sash  stationary. 

back  of  the  room.  This  would  tend  to  cause  the  birds  to  congre- 
gate there  in  the  winter  when  they  should  be  working  in  the  litter 
on  the  floor. 

Extremely  large  sizes  of  window  lights  should  be  avoided,  as 
they  are  expensive  to  replace  when  broken.  Very  small  lights  are 
undesirable,  as  the  sash  bars  shut  out  a  great  deal  of  sunlight  and 
the  glass  is  hard  to  clean.  Where  possible,  a  single  sash  should 
be  used  in  an  opening,  as  it  is  cheaper  than  a  divided  sash.  Single 
ones  require  very  simple  frames  which  can  be  made  at  home;  they 
also  allow  of  hinging  on  the  side  or  top,  making  them  easy  to  open. 
Figure  77  shows  different  plans  for  windows  used  in  poultry  houses. 

Muslin  curtains  should  be  stretched  on  light  frames  built  of 
1x3  inch  strips  and  hinged  at  the  top.  The  frames  are  raised 
up  inside  by  means  of  pulleys  and  cord.  Sometimes  they  are  hung 
on  cords  and  pulley  and  hang  below  the  windows  outside  the  house. 


122        PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


Ji 


When  made,  light-weight  muslin  should  be  used,  canvas  being 
too  heavy  and  cheesecloth  too  light.  At  best  a  great  deal  of 
dust  is  present  in  the  poultry  house,  which  requires  that  these 
muslin  curtains  be  beaten  or  swept  occasionally  to  clean  them  so 
the  air  can  pass  through  freely.  Too  large  or  too  long  frames  are 
objectionable,  as  they  get  out  of  shape  easily  and  give  trouble  in 

raising  and  lowering  them. 
A  frame  about  4x5  feet 
is  a  very  convenient  size 
(Fig.  78).  A  glass  sash  is 
sometimes  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  frame  so  that, 
when  the  curtain  is  down 
on  stormy  days,  sunlight  can 
get  into  the  house — if  there 
is  no  other  glass  window. 

Material  for  Roofing.— 
The  material  used  to  cover 
the  roof  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  the  angle  or 
pitch.  A  roof  with  less  than 
one-third  pitch  should  not 
be  covered  with  shingles,  as 
the  water  does  not  run  off 
quickly  and  the  roof  will  rot. 
A  driving  rain  is  apt  to  run 
under  the  shingles  and  cause 
the  roof  to  leak.  A  good 
grade  of  roofing  paper  may 
be  used,  as  it  is  much 
cheaper  and  if  properly  cared 
for  is  as  durable  as  shingles. 
Such  paper  can  be  used  on 
roofs  which  are  nearly  flat. 

A  roof  with  low  pitch  and  tight  paper  is  warmer  in  summer 
and  also  warmer  in  winter  than  a  shingle  roof.  It  can  be  made 
cooler  in  the  summer  by  providing  ample  ventilation  from  the  rear 
over  the  roosts  (Fig.  67) . 

Preservation  of  Buildings. — When  permanent  buildings  are 
erected,  it  is  poor  policy  not  to  preserve  them  both  outside  and  in. 
Give  the  exterior  two  or  more  coats  of  paint  if  dressed  lumber  is 


7 


;\ 


FIG.  78. — Two  plans  for  constructing  frames  for 
muslin  curtains. 


REVIEW  123 

used,  and  treat  the  inside  with  a  good  whitewash  mixture  made  to 
adhere  well.  The  latter  will  act  as  a  cleanser  and  disinfectant. 
All  window  sashes  should  be  well  painted.  If  roofing  paper  is 
used,  the  directions  that  come  with  it  should  be  followed  closely. 
Where  extremely  cheap  buildings  are  constructed  of  rough  lumber, 
the  cost  of  painting  them  may  be  too  great.  Whitewash  may  be 
applied  with  a  spray  pump. 

Tar  is  one  of  the  best  preservatives  known.  It  is  a  by-product 
from  coal  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  and  is  very  cheap.  It  may  be 
diluted  with  gasoline  and  used  in  warm  weather  without  artificial 
heat.  It  should  be  used  on  all  posts,  sills,  and  parts  exposed  to 
great  moisture.  It  is  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  roofs  except  those 
covered  with  tin.  It  is  used  also  to  paint  the  outside  of  buildings, 
but  its  monotonous  black  color  should  be  relieved  by  yellow  or 
other  appropriate  trimming.  Tar  will  last  longer  than  oil  paints, 
is  much  cheaper,  and  preserves  wood  better.  It  may  be  used  on 
the  dropping  boards,  roosts,  and  nests  to  fill  crevices  where  lice 
would  hide. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Contrast  the  old  and  new  ideas  in  poultry-house  construction. 

2.  Discuss  type  of  house  in  its  relation  to  three  systems  of  poultry  farming. 

3.  Enumerate  nine  features  in  a  good  poultry  house. 

4.  Discuss  the  five  features  which  you  consider  most  important. 

5.  Tell  of  three  types  of  laying  houses. 

6.  What  two  features  should  be  considered  in  deciding  on  height  of  house? 

7.  Describe  a  standard  unit  and  discuss  its  possible  development. 

8.  Name  materials  often  used  in  poultry-house  construction. 

9.  Which  is  most  generally  used,  and  why? 

10.  Name  and  define  six  types  of  roofs. 

11.  Which  roof  type  is  best? 

12.  Give  the  several  types  of  foundations  used  in  poultry-house  construction. 

13.  Discuss  the  use  for  floors  of  dirt,  wood,  and  concrete. 

14.  Give  specifications  for  constructing  a  concrete  floor. 

15.  What  sizes  of  lumber  are  used  for  framing? 

16.  What  kinds  of  lumber  are  used  for  walls? 

17.  Discuss  the  use  of  doors  and  manner  of  hanging. 

18.  How  should  the  windows  and  curtains  be  placed? 

19.  Describe  methods  of  hanging  windows. 

20.  Tell  of  muslin  frames,  and  manner  of  opening  and  closing. 

21.  On  what  pitches  of  roof  may  shingles  be  used?    When  use  roofing  paper? 

22.  Give  reasons  for  using  paint,  whitewash,  and  tar. 


References.— Poultry-house  Construction  and  its  Influence  on  the  Domes- 


No.  111.    Building  Poultry  Houses,  by  Rice  and  Rogers,  Cornell  Bulletin  274. 
Poultry-house  Construction,  by  Halpin  and  Ocock,  Wisconsin  Bulletin  215. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION. 

THE  LOCATION  of  the  house  having  been  decided  upon,  the 
desired  height  of  the  floor  should  be  determined, — marked  Z  in 
figure  80.  This  level  should  be  at  least  six  inches  above  the 
highest  point  of  the  ground  site  of  the  house.  In  cases  where  the 
house  is  built  on  very  sloping  land,  it  may  be  desirable  to  do  some 
grading  by  cutting  away  the  higher  portions,  using  this  material 
to  fill  up  the  lower  level  before  the  foundation  is  laid  out  (Fig.  79). 


FIG.  79. — Cross  section  of  hillside,  showing  manner  of  grading  before  laying  out  founda- 
tion. The  long  dotted  line  shows  original  slope  and  the  heavy  black  line  shows  the  surface 
graded  for  the  poultry  house.  The  house  is  shown  in  outline.  Drain  tile  may  be  placed  at 
A  to  carry  water  below  the  house. 

Methods  of  Laying  out  Foundation. — Locate  the  corner  of  the 
building  0  (Fig.  80),  and  drive  around  this  corner  three  stakes, 
as  L,  M,  and  Nt  about  three  feet  apart.  On  each  of  these  stakes 
find  the  level  of  the  floor  Z,  by  the  use  of  the  levelling  board  or 
transit.  Connect  these  stakes  with  boards,  shown  as  L  M  and 
M  N,  having  the  top  of  each  board  level  with  Z.  In  using  the 
levelling  board  and  spirit  level  in  small  buildings,  it  is  well  to 
locate  a  stake  in  the  centre  of  the  house  which  is  level  with  Z, 
and  work  from  this  to  the  four  corners.  In  long  houses  it  is  neces- 
sary to  start  from  the  point  Z,  and  work  to  the  different  corners 
in  a  direct  line  by  the  use  of  intermediate  stakes,  all  of  which  should 
be  level  with  Z.  Next  stretch  a  line,  H  I,  over  the  point  0,  which 
is  the  corner  of  the  building,  in  a  direction  which  will  represent 
the  back  of  the  house.  Measure  off  from  the  point  0  on  this  line 
the  number  of  feet  which  will  represent  the  length  of  the  house. 

124 


DIGGING  THE  TRENCH 


125 


Drive  a  stake,  marked  P,  the  top  of  which  will  be  level  with  Z. 
About  this  stake  drive  three  other  stakes,  Z/,  M',  N',  and  connect 
these  with  two  boards,  the  tops  of  which  are  level  with  Z.  Next 
pass  a  string,  R  S',  over  the  point  P  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
0  P.  The  best  way  to  determine  the  right  angle  is  by  the  use  of 
the  right-angle  triangle.  Measure  off  on  the  line  P  S'  eight  feet, 
and  on  the  line  P  0  six  feet.  Move  the  string  back  and  forth 
until  the  distance  between  these  two  points  is  ten  feet.  When  this 
angle  is  determined,  measure  off  on  the  line  P  S'  the  distance 
equal  to  the  width  of  the  building,  and  drive  a  stake  at  this  point, 
S.  Construct  the  regular  corner  boards  about  this  point,  level 


FIG.  80. — Diagram  showing  method  of  laying  out  foundation.     (See  text  for  directions.) 
The  foundation  cannot  be  laid  out  too  carefully. 

with  Z.  Determine  the  corner  Y  by  measuring  from  S  in  the 
direction  of  F,  the  distance  being  equal  to  the  length  of  the  house, 
and  also  from  0  in  the  direction  of  F,  the  distance  being  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  house.  The  intersection  of  these  two  lines  will 
be  the  point  F.  Construct  the  regulation  corner  boards  about 
this  corner,  level  with  the  point  Z.  Stretch  two  lines  which  will 
locate  the  outside  of  the  finished  wall.  This  line  will  be  level  with 
the  point  Z.  For  laying  out  the  length  of  the  wall  or  trench,  other 
lines  may  be  stretched  parallel  to  these,  indicating  the  width  of 
the  trench  or  wall  desired. 

Digging  the  Trench. — The  trench  for  the  foundation  wall 
should  be  dug  at  least  four  inches  wider  than  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  to  be  built.  The  dirt  is  thrown  outside  so  that  later  on  it 


126 


PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


can  be  graded  up  against  the  foundation,  turning  the  water  away. 
The  trench  should  be  dug  approximately  three  feet  deep,  or  below 
the  average  frost  line.  Before  laying  the  foundation,  if  the  ground 
is  moist,  it  is  well  to  lay  a  three-inch  tile  in  the  bottom  of  the 
trench  (Fig.  81,  a),  running  it  to  some  suitable  outlet  at  a  lower 
level.  After  laying  the  tile,  the  trench  should  be  filled  up  to  a 
depth  of  about  one  foot  below  ground  with  stones  or  coarse  cinders 
(Fig.  81,  6).  This  should  be  firmly  tamped  and  levelled.  This 
gives  a  good  foundation  on  which  to  lay  the  stone,  brick,  or  con- 
crete foundation  wall,  with  little  danger  of  heaving.  A  concrete 
wall  is  the  most  desirable  and  economical  for  the  foundation. 

Making  Frames  for  Concrete  Walls. — The  frames  for  concrete 
walls  are  usually  made  of  one-inch  material,  preferably  eight  to 


FIG.  81. — Five  steps  in  the  construction  of  a  concrete  foundation,  a,  Tile  in  the  bottom 
of  trench;  b,  tamped  cinders  over  drain  tile;  c,  forms  ready  for  pouring  concrete;  d,  forms 
filled  with  concrete,  sill  bolt  in  place;  e,  forms  removed,  foundation  completed,  and  cinders 
filled  in  on  both  sides. 

ten  inches  wide.  These  frames  should  be  made  in  sections,  cleats 
being  used  to  fasten  them  together,  all  cleats  being  on  the  outside. 
If  the  wall  is  to  be  eighteen  inches  high,  the  frames  should  be  con- 
structed eighteen  inches  wide.  They  may  be  from  eight  to  sixteen 
feet  in  length,  so  they  can  be  easily  handled.  After  the  frames  are 
made,  they  should  be  set  in  the  trench  so  that  the  top  is  level  with 
the  top  of  the  foundation  wall  when  completed.  They  can  be  held 
securely  in  place  with  stakes  outside  of  the  frame  (Fig.  82).  The 
corners  should  be  securely  nailed  together  to  prevent  bulging. 
Every  three  feet,  cross  pieces  should  be  nailed  to  keep  the  frames 
from  spreading  while  the  concrete  is  being  poured  (Fig.  81  c,  d). 
The  frames  should  be  constructed  and  set  up  so  that  they  can  be 
readily  taken  to  pieces  without  breaking  the  wall.  One  set  of 
frames  can  be  used  over  and  over  again.  If  they  are  no  longer 
desired  for  ^that  purpose,  the  boards  can  be  used  for  roofing  or 


CONCRETE  FOUNDATIONS 


127 


other  purposes  in  the  building  itself.  If  an  extra-high  frame  is 
built,  it  is  necessary  to  brace  it  above  ground  with  diagonal  stakes 
to  prevent  bulging. 

Concrete  Foundations. — For  the  construction  of  the  wall  itself, 
the  following  materials  will  be  necessary:  cement,  sharp  coarse 
sand,  and  some  material  which  will  serve  as  aggregate  or  filler, 
as  coarse  gravel,  stone,  or  cinders.  For  making  the  mixture,  a 
mixing  board  should  be  made,  large  enough  to  allow  room  for 
shoveling  the  mixture  over  and  over  in  two  different  piles  (Fig. 
82).  A  floor  10  x  12  feet  will  give  ample  room  for*  the  work.  A 
desirable  mixture  for  the  wall  itself  is  what  is  known  as  1-3-5,  or 
one  part  cement,  three  of  sand,  and  five  of  the  aggregate.  These 
should  be  measured,  and  should  be  mixed  on  the  board  in  alternate 


FIG.  82. — Placing  fresh  concrete  in  completed  forms  for  foundation  wall. 

layers.  A  wheelbarrow  of  known  capacity  is  very  desirable.  After 
the  ingredients  are  on  the  mixing  board,  the  entire  batch  should  be 
shoveled  over  to  insure  a  perfect  mixing.  To  facilitate  mixing,  it 
is  desirable  to  have  a  man  with  a  garden  rake  do  this  work  during 
the  shoveling.  After  the  mixing,  all  the  water  should  be  added 
that  the  mixture  will  hold;  but  not  enough  should  be  put  on  to 
allow  any  to  run  off;  this  would  be  a  waste  of  cement  and  weaken 
the  mixture.  When  thoroughly  mixed  with  water,  the  concrete  is 
ready  to  put  into  the  trench,  which  may  be  done  with  a  wheel- 
barrow or  shovel.  While  the  concrete  is  being  poured,  long  bolts 
are  placed  about  ten  feet  apart  to  later  hold  the  sill.  Thorough 
tamping  is  important,  and  to  be  complete  the  concrete  should  be 


128          PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

tamped  enough  to  bring  the  water  to  the  surface.  The  frame  should 
be  filled  to  within  about  an  inch  of  the  top  (Fig.  81,  d,  e),  and  the 
remaining  space  should  be  filled  with  a  wearing  coat  composed  of 
one  part  of  cement  and  three  parts  of  sand,  mixed  in  the  same  way. 
This  should  be  smooth  and  the  corners  bevelled  to  prevent  chipping. 
During  the  process  of  pouring  the  concrete,  anchor  bolts  should  be 
imbedded  every  ten  feet,  allowing  them  to  project  above  the  frame 
about  five  inches  if  a  4  x  6  inch  sill  is  used.  It  will  require  from 
two  to  three  days  for  the  mixture  to  harden  before  taking  the 
frames  away,  but  before  much  pressure  is  put  on  the  wall  it  should 
be  allowed  to  season.  It  will  season  more  quickly  and  become 
harder  during  moist  weather  than  when  it  is  exceptionally  dry. 
For  this  reason,  it  is  desirable  during  very  dry  weather  to  wet  the 
wall  down  occasionally.  Fifteen  days  is  usually  required  for  proper 
seasoning  before  the  operation  of  building  the  house  should  be 
commenced. 

Construction  of  Frame. — After  the  concrete  wall  is  finished, 
the  guide  lines  should  be  re-stretched  in  order  that  the  sills  may 
be  laid  true.  They  should  be  laid  to  the  outside  string,  as  they  are 
apt  to  vary  some  in  width.  The  sills  should  be  bolted  firmly  to 
the  foundation,  washers  being  used  so  that  the  nuts  may  be  set 
very  tight  and  not  wear  into  the  wood.  The  corner  stud  posts 
should  be  nailed  to  the  sill,  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  sill.  The 
corner  posts  should  be  made  plumb  and  held  perpendicular  by 
nailing  scantling  braces  running  each  way;  if  these  four  posts  are 
properly  plumbed,  the  plates  being  nailed  on  them,  a  perfectly 
upright  building  is  secured.  It  is  possible  by  the  use  of  the  square 
to  insure  perfect  fit  when  marking  and  cutting  the  rafters.  But 
usually  it  is  desirable  to  cut  one  pattern  rafter,  putting  it  in  place 
to  see  if  it  fits  properly,  then  using  it  to  cut  the  others  by. 

Plans  and  Specifications  of  Laying  Houses. — The  following 
description  of  the  plan  shown  in  figure  85  gives  the  important 
features  for  a  standard-unit  laying  house. 

Double-Unit  House. — The  outside  dimensions  are  40  x  20  feet, 
sills  to  be  4  x  6  inches,  and  to  be  bolted  to  a  concrete  foundation 
wall  eight  inches  wide  and  twenty  inches  deep.  This  is  laid  on 
tamped  cinder  or  crushed  stone,  the  entire  depth  of  the  foundation 
trench  being  three  feet. 

The  shed-roof  type  of  construction  is  used,  with  nine-foot 
studding  in  front  and  a  height  of  four  and  one-half  feet  in  the 
back  (Figs.  83,  84,  and  85).  All  studding  and  rafters  are  2  x  4  inch 


DOUBLE-UNIT  HOUSE 


129 


hemlock  or  yellow  pine.    A  2  x  6  inch  girder  runs  the  length  of  the 
building  supporting  the  rafters  along  their  centre.     The  girder  is 


Floor  Plan. 


Front  View. 


rn 


'  FlG>  83.— Working  plans  of  a  double-unit  laying  house.    Each  unit  20  x  20  feet,  with  a 

capacity  of  100  birds. 

supported  every  ten  feet  by  4  x  4  inch  posts,  resting  on  concrete 
piers.  The  plates  which  rest  on  studs  should  be  made  of  2  x  4  inch 
material  doubled,  and  joints  "  broken." 

9 


130          PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

All  outside  walls  and  roof  are  single  boarded,  preferably  of 
eight-inch  tongue-and-groove  yellow  pine.  White  pine  can  be 
used,  but  is  much  more  expensive.  The  roof  and  back  wall  should 
be  covered  with  a  good  patent  roofing  paper;  all  joints  should  be 
carefully  lapped  and  cemented. 

The  muslin  curtains  in  the  front  wall  are  hinged  at  the  top  and 
can  be  lifted  up.  The  3x5  foot  windows  are  hinged  at  the  side 
and  open  as  indicated  on  the  floor  plan.  One  window  in  each  pen 
should  be  so  constructed  that  part  of  the  wall  will  open  when 
desired,  thus  making  a  combination  door  and  window.  This  will 
greatly  facilitate  cleaning. 

The  dropping  boards,  perches,  and  nests  are  best  arranged  on 
the  back  wall.  The  perches  are  hinged  to  the  wall  so  that  they 


FIG*   84. — Frame  of  standard  multiple-unit  laying  house — light,  cheap,  yet  durable. 

may  be  hooked  up  when  cleaning.  The  nests  are  darkened  by  a 
hinged  door  in  front,  which  may  be  let  down  when  it  is  desired  to 
remove  the  eggs. 

The  dividing  partition  between  the  units  is  built  of  boards  and 
extends  from  the  back  wall  to  within  six  feet  of  the  front  wall ;  the 
remaining  space  is  left  entirely  open.  This  protects  the  birds  from 
any  drafts  when  on  the  roosts.  When  desired,  portable  light-wire 
partitions  may  be  used  to  separate  the  units. 

A  large  dry-mash  hopper  should  be  built  in  this  middle  parti- 
tion (Fig.  83).  If  four  or  more  units  are  built,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  only  one  hopper  in  the  centre  of  each  two  units,  the  other 
dividing  partition  being  used  for  nesting  space.  The  construction 
of  the  hopper  is  shown  in  the  following  chapter. 

There  is  an  elevated  platform  under  the  muslin  front,  which 
provides  room  for  the  water  fountain  and  grit  and  shell  hoppers. 


DOUBLE-UNIT  HOUSE 


131 


When  the  house  is  completed,  a  concrete  floor  should  be  laid, 
and  should  consist  of  three  or  four  distinct  layers.  First,  a  layer 
of  about  six  to  ten  inches  of  cinders  or  coarse  gravel,  tamped 
thoroughly.  This  serves  for  drainage  purposes  to  keep  the  soil 
moisture  away  from  the  bottom  of  the  floor.  Next,  a  rough  coat 
of  concrete  about  four  inches  thick,  and  over  this  a  finished  coat 
of  two  parts  of  sand  with  one  of  cement,  trowelled  smooth. 

Where  there  is  danger  of  much  moisture  coming  up  from  below, 
it  is  advisable  to  put  a  layer  of  tarred  building  paper  between  the 
rough  and  finish  coats  of  cement.  It  should  be  nailed  down  with 


FIG.  85. — Double-unit  house  completed.     Note  the  combination  door  and  window, 
and  the  arrangement  of  openings  for  light  and  ventilation. 

flat-headed  nails;  the  heads  of  the  latter  should  be  left  sticking 
out  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  to  hold  the  top  coat  of  cement. 

Such  a  floor  is  moisture  proof  and  vermin  proof,  and  is  easily 
and  quickly  cleaned. 

The  completed  house  is  shown  in  figure  85. 

Materials.— In  the  following  list  of  materials  required  for 
building  a  double  unit,  as  shown  in  the  working  drawings  given  in 
figure  83,  the  prices  quoted  are  only  approximate: 

LUMBER:    Sills. . . •     6  ps.  4"  x  6"  x  20' 

Plates 8  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  20' 

Posts  .  2  ps.  4"  x  4"  x  14' 

2ps.4"x4"xl8' 

Studding 9  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  18; 

4  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  14' 

Rafters 22  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  22^ 

Frame  for  nests  and  dropping  boards 5  ps.  2"  x  3"  x  16'  hemlock. 

Roof,  dropping  boards,  walls,  and  nests,  8-inch  tongue-and- 

groove  boards -2,200  sq^  ft. 

Curtain  frames  and  trim,  1"  x  2"  white  pine 200  linear  feet 


132 


PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


Nests  1"  x  4"  white  pine 100  linear  feet 

Broody  coop one  bundle  plaster  lath. 

NAILS 10  Ibs.  20-penny  wire. 

50  Ibs.  10-penny  wire. 
20  Ibs.    8-penny  wire. 

Approximate  cost  of  the  above  materials $  75.54 

Roofing  paper,  1,060  sq.  ft.,  or  11  rolls,  at  $3.00 33.00 

Four  special  sash,  3'  x  5',  at  $2.00 8.00 

Muslin,  8  sq.  yards,  at  12^  cents  per  yard 1.00 

Hardware,  as  hinges,  locks,  tacks,  hooks,  and  wire 4.75 

Foundation  and  floor — 

Cement,  35  bags,  at  50  cents $17.50 

Cinders  or  gravel,  30  yards  at  $1.00 30.00 

Sand,  5  yards : 7.50 


Total  cost,  not  including  labor,  if  concrete  floor  is  put  in 


55.00 


the  house  and  cinders  and  sand  have  to  be  purchased $176.29 

This  gives  a  cost  per  square  foot  of  floor  space  of  $0.222. 
A  cost  per  running  foot  of  house  of  $4.44. 
A  cost  per  bird,  allowing  4  sq.  ft.  per  bird,  of  $0.888. 

Adding  labor  to  this  at  one-fourth  the  cost  of  material,  the  total  cost  is 
$222.36,  or  $1.11  per  bird. 

Long  Laying  House  of  Small  Units. — This  house  is  intended 
Frame  for  Front.  for  breeding  pens.    It  is  built 

in  three  sections,  each  forty- 
eight  feet  long,  with  solid  parti- 
tions between  them.  The  plan 
shown  is  for  one  section  only, 
— the  material  for  three  sec- 
tions. 


FIG.  86. — Working  plans  of  email-unit  laying  house.     (See  text  for  description.) 


LONG  LAYING  HOUSE  OF  SMALL  UNITS  133 

It  will  be  noticed  that  a  door  is  in  the  front  of  each  pen  (Figs. 
86  and  87);  this  is  necessary  in  a  house  to  be  used  for  educational 
and  experimental  work,  but  is  not  desirable  in  a  farm  poultry 
house  where  one  attendant  will  care  for  the  entire  flock.  The 
muslin  curtain  should  then  be  extended  to  cover  this  space. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  presence  of  an  elevated  walk  in  front 
of  the  house,  to  allow  easy  access  to  each  pen  and  yet  allow  the 
birds  to  enter  the  yards  which  extend  to  the  south  or  front  side. 


FIG.  87. — Long  laying  house  as  planned  in  figure  86.     The  small  units  are  suitable  for 

breeding  purposes. 

Note  the  hinged  clapboard  on  the  outside  of  the  back  wall, 
which  can  be  opened,  and  thus  allow  air  to  circulate  around  the 
perches  on  hot  summer  nights  (Figs.  67  and  86). 

Materials. — The  following  list  of  material  is  required  to  build 
three  sections  of  this  type,  making  16  x  48  feet: 

Foundation,  2  feet  deep  and  8  inches  wide— 20  bags  cement,  2  cubic  yards 

gravel,  6  cubic  yards  cinders. 
All  framing  material  hemlock  or  yellow  pine — 

Sills 8  ps.  2"  x  6"  x  20' 

8  ps.  2"  x  6"  x  16' 
3  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  16' 

End  and  division  studs 10  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8' 

15  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  T 
10  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  6' 

Side  wall  studs  .  36  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8^' 

23  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  5y2' 

Extras  for  short  pieces 3  ps.  2*  x  4^  x  12'^ 

Corner  and  division  posts  (doubled) 18  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8^ 

10  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  5%' 

Rafters    25  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  18' 

Girder  (doubled) 4  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  20' 

2  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8' 

Plates 8  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  20' 

4ps.2"x4*x8' 


134 


PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


Roof  boards  ........................................  900  sq.  ft.  ship-lap. 

Roof  paper  .........................................   900  sq.  ft. 

Supports  for  dropping  boards,  etc  .....................   32  ps.  2"  x  3"  x  4' 

20  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  3' 
Perches  ......................  ......................    12  ps.  2"  x  2"  x  10' 

Inside  back  sheathing,  dropping  boards,  partitions,  etc  .  .   700  sq.  ft.  ship-lap. 
Nest  platform  .................................  250  linear  ft.  shingle  lath. 


Siding 


Trimming,  doors,  nests,  etc.,  dressed  white  pine. 


550  sq.  ft.  novelty  siding. 
4  cloth  curtains,  4'  x  5' 
4  window  sash,  5'  x  3' 

200  linear  ft.,  1"  x  2" 

100  linear  ft.,  l"x  3" 

500  linear  f  t.,  I"  x  4" 

200  square  ft.,  1"  x  8"  matched. 


Hardware  — 

3  prs.  double-swing  butts. 
5  prs.  double-strap  hinges  for  doors. 

12  prs.  double-strap  hinges  for  windows,  curtains,  and  small  doors. 
5  barn-door  latches. 


«— 2'5- 


18' 


FIG.  880. — End  and  front  views  of  a  part  of  laying  house  with  two-thirds  span  roof. 


TWO-THIRDS  SPAN  LAYING  HOUSE 


135 


This  material  will  cost  approximately  $217.00;  for  48  linear 
feet  will  cost  $4.52  per  running  foot;  or  $0.28  per  sq.  ft.  for  the 
area  of  768  sq.  ft.  Allowing  4  sq.  ft.  per  bird,  the  cost  per  bird 
is  $1.12. 

Two-thirds  Span  Laying  House.— Figures  88a  and  886  show 
drawings  of  a  single  section  of  the  long  laying  house  at  the  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  college,  each  section  being  eighteen  feet  square, 


FIG.  886. — Working  plans  of  laying  house  with  two-thirds  span  roof. — Floor  plan  of  one 

section. 

thus  accommodating  sixty-five  birds.  The  sills  are  made  of  two 
2x6  inch  pieces  and  the  plates  of  two  2x4  inch.  The  front  is 
seven  feet  eight  inches  high  and  the  back  four  feet  eight  inches; 
the  studs  are  seven  feet  and  four  feet  long,  respectively.  The  roof 
is  of  combination  type,  being  comparatively  steep,  having  one 
foot  rise  to  every  two  feet  horizontal  run.  Shingles  are  used  instead 
of  prepared  roofing,  being  adapted  to  the  steep  roof.  No  alleyway 
is  used  in  this  house,  and  the  pens  are  connected  by  a  series  of 


136 


PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 


doors.  This  utilizes  all  the  space  and  compels  the  attendant  to 
mingle  with  the  birds  where  he  is  able  to  study  their  needs  and 
conditions  much  more  thoroughly  (Figs.  89  and  90). 


FIG.  89. — Laying  house  with  two-thirds  span  roof.     A  neat  house, 
and  the  front  lower  than  with  the  shed  roof. 


The  cost  is  greater 


In  the  centre  of  the  south  side  is  a  glass  door  made  by  hinging 
two  9-light  9  x  12  inch  glass  windows.    This  affords  fifteen  square 


FIG.  90. — Interior  view  of  house,  Fig.  89,  showing  arrangement  of  nests  and  perches. 
(Photo  from  Michigan  Agricultural  College.) 

feet  of  glass  to  324  square  feet  of  floor  space.     The  door  can  be 
opened  for  cleaning  purposes. 

The  open-front  method  of  muslin  ventilation  is  used  in  this 


TWO-THIRDS  SPAN  LAYING  HOUSE 


137 


house.  On  both  sides  are  muslin  frames  3x5  feet,  which  being  four 
feet  from  the  floor  do  not  permit  drafts  on  the  birds  when  open. 
One  is  opened  every  day  during  the  winter,  but  closed  at  night. 


Floor  Plan. 


I 


1        If 


L 


Cross  Section. 


Front  View. 


INt    MtSK  WtRE  FRONT 


Fig.  91a. — Half-monitor  type  of  laying  house:  Working  plans. 


The  house  is  lined  on  all  sides  and  above.    This  would  not  be 
advisable  in  a  commercial  house. 

The  roosts  are  also  set  on  2  x  4  inch  pieces  in  the  form  of  a 


138         PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

frame  which  is  hinged  at  the  back  and  can  be  raised  for  cleaning.  It 
is  desirable  to  raise  the  roosts  so  as  to  force  lazy  hens  to  the  floor. 
The  floor  is  made  of  cement,  and  any  tendency  toward  cold 
is  eliminated  by  the  liberal  use  of  straw,  which  in  addition  compels 
the  hen  to  exercise  in  her  search  for  feed.  Cement  floors  are  cold 
because  of  dampness.  This  may  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  a  layer 
of  tar  paper  in  the  construction,  as  already  described. 

Frame  in  process  of  construction. 


Nearing  completion. 


FIG.  916. — Half-monitor  type  of  laying  house:  Under  construction. 

For  ease  in  cleaning,  all  fixtures  are  portable,  and  all  nests  and 
boxes  have  sloping  tops,  thus  eliminating  the  accumulation  of 
filth  on  the  internal  fixtures.  This  house  is  well  adapted  for 
commercial  use. 

A  Half -monitor  Laying  House. — This  house  has  an  entire  glass 
front  in  the  peak  (Figs.  91a  and  916).  The  extension  in  front  is 


PORTABLE  LAYING  HOUSE  139 

left  entirely  open  two  feet  above  the  ground.  The  opening  is 
covered  with  small-mesh  poultry  netting,  no  curtains  being  pro- 
vided for  it.  The  nests  and  perches  are  in  the  back  part  of  the 
main  house,  and  are  protected  and  separated  from  the  open  front 
by  a  solid  board  partition  extending  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
windows  to  within  two  feet  of  th"e  floor.  The  windows  in  the  peak 
are  equipped  with  transom  sash,  so  that  they  may  be  opened, 
being  hinged  at  the  top  and  opening  outward. 

List  of  Materials. — The  following  is  a  list  of  material  required 
for  the  half-monitor  house  complete,  20  x  40  feet: 

Foundation,  concrete  wall  as  deep  as  necessary  and  8  inches  wide — 22  bags 
cement,  2  cubic  yards  gravel,  4  cubic  yards  cinders. 

Sills 12  ps.  2"  x  6"  x  20' 

4  ps.  2"  x  6"  x  12' 
4  ps.  2"  x  6"  x  8' 

Corner  and  division  posts  (doubled) 16  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  5' 

8  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  9' 
End  wall  and  division  studs 6  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  6' 

12  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8' 
Side  wall  studs  and  long  partition 28  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  5' 

9  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  9' 

Plates 8  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  20' 

Girder,  sill  under  windows. 2  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  20' 

Rafters. . . ' 21  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  14' 

21  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  10' 

Extra  pieces  for  window  work,  dropping  boards,  etc 10  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  12' 

Supports  for  dropping  boards 12  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  10' 

Perches 16  ps.  2"  x  2"  x  10' 

Partitions,  nests,  and  dropping  boards 720  sq.  ft.  ship-lap. 

Roof 1,000  sq.  ft.  ship-lap. 

Roofing  paper 1,000  sq.  ft. 

Sash..  .-   12,  34' x  34; 

Trimmings. .      .  .  dressed  white  pine 50  linear  ft.  1"  x  2" 

150  linear  ft.  I"x3* 

80  linear  ft,  r  x  4 
120  linear  ft.  1"  x  6" 

This  material  will  cost  approximately  $219.50.  The  house  of 
forty  linear  feet  will  cost  $5.48  per  running  foot;  or  $0.27  per  sq.  ft. 
for  the  total  area  of  800  sq.  ft.  The  cost  per  bird,  allowing  4  sq.  ft. 
each,  is  $1.08,  not  including  labor. 

Portable  Laying  House.— This  house  has  two  curtain  openings 
and  one  large  window  in  front  (Figs.  92a  and  926).  These  provide 
ample  sunlight  and  ventilation.  The  openings  for  the  curtains  are 


140          PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

Plan. 


.     'o 


JJ- 


ROOST3 


li- 


Sills 


•\e-o~- 


2.'-o"  Cenfers 


",v^i-    Cur-4oio,     [  Window,;      Screen 


Front  Elevation. 


V 
Tr-Qf 


Door 


4."  n  fe"      Skid. 


Framing  of  Front. 


-£-7 


FIG.  92o. — Portable  laying  house:  Working  plans. 


PORTABLE  LAYING  HOUSE 


141 


covered  with  netting,  the  curtains  being  so  arranged  as  to  swing  up 
to  the  rafters.  The  front  wall  directly  below  the  window  and  one 
of  the  curtains  is  made  to  open  and  admit  sunlight  directly  on  the 
floor  near  the  front  wall.  The  door  is  hinged  at  the  top  and  pro- 
vided with  a  hook  to  hold  it  up,  this  opening  also  being  covered 
with  poultry  netting.  The  roosts  and  dropping  boards  are  placed 
along  the  back  wall  about  two  feet  from  the  floor.  The  nests  are 


FIG.  926. — Portable  colony  laying  house  completed. 

placed  on  the  continuation  of  the  dropping  board,  the  roosts  and 
nests  filling  the  back  portion. 

List  of  Materials. — The  following  materials  (lumber  chiefly 
yellow  and  white  pine)  will  cost  approximately  $60.00 : 

Skids 2  ps.  4*  x  6*  x  14' 

Sills 7  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8' 

Studs 9  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8' 

2  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  7' 
7  or  9  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  6' 
Girders  and  plates 5  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  12' 

2ps.  2"x4*x8' 

Rafters 7  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  9' 

Floor 17  ps.  r  x  6"  x  12' 

Siding.  18  PP.  1"  x  6"  x  10' 

17  ps.  I*x6*xl4' 

Sheathing : 21  ps.  1"  x  6"  x  12' 

Roofing IK  rolls  best  3-ply  roofing. 

One  door 4-panel  2'  8"  x  6' 

One  window. .  12  light  9"  x  12* 


142        PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY-HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION 

Finish  for  curtain  frames 1  pc.  1  }4"  x  6"  x  12' 

Roosts  and  nests 2  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  6' 

6  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  3' 
2ps.  I"x4"xl2' 
8ps.  I"xl2"x6' 
2  ps.  Y2"  x  12"  x  6' 

Miscellaneous 2  ps.  M"  rod  12' 

2  ps.  W  rod  10' 

Hardware 1^  prs.  3"  wrought  steel  butts  for  main  door. 

4;Hj  prs.  4"  T  hinges  for  chick  door,  curtain  frames,  and  nests. 

1^2  prs.  6"  T  hinges  for  trap  door. 

3  sash  locks. 

1  rim  lock. 

y%  doz.  screw  hooks  and  eyes. 

1  special  long  hook  for  trap  door. 

25  Ibs.  8d.  nails. 

8  Ibs.  lOd.  nails. 

20  Ibs.  20d.  nails. 

20  feet  of  wire  cloth  or  poultry  netting  36  inches  wide. 

REVIEW. 

1.  How  should  sloping  land  be  graded  for  the  laying  house? 

2.  Describe  in  detail  a  correct  method  of  laying  out  a  foundation. 

3.  What  are  the  essential  points  in  digging  the  foundation  trench? 

4.  How  should  the  forms  be  made  and  held  in  place? 

5.  Describe  manner  of  mixing  and  pouring  concrete. 

6.  Enumerate  essential  points  in  framing  house. 

7.  Discuss  the  standard-unit  laying  house  in  detail:    (a)  Plans;  (6)  specifica- 

tions; (c)  materials  required;  (d)  cost;  (e)  efficiency. 

8.  Discuss  the  small-unit  breeding  house,  using  the  same  five  points. 

9.  Discuss  the  two-thirds  span  laying  house,  in  like  manner. 

10.  Discuss  the  half-monitor  laying  house,  in  like  manner. 

11.  Discuss  the  portable  laying  house,  in  like  manner. 

References. — Farm  Poultry-houses,  by  Davidson  and  Lippincott,  Bulletin 
132,  Iowa  Station.  Practical  Poultry  Building,  by  H.  L.  Blanchard,  Washing- 
ton Station,  Bulletin  4.  Poultry-houses,  by  W.  J.  Lane,  Minnesota  Extension, 
Bulletin  8.  Poultry-houses,  Pennsylvania  Extension,  Circular  8. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

POULTRY  FIXTURES. 

IN  THE  planning  and  arrangement  of  the  various  appliances 
which  are  necessary  for  the  proper  equipment  of  a  poultry  house, 
the  following  features  should  be  considered,  as  poor  fixtures,  im- 
properly designed  and  located,  do  not  serve  their  purposes  in  the  pen : 

Simplicity. — All  interior  fixtures  should  be  of  simple  design 
and  construction,  thereby  making  them  more  sanitary  and  reducing 
labor  in  caring  for  the  birds. 

Cleanliness.- — As  many  of  the  appliances  as  possible  should  be 
portable,  so  as  to  be  easily  taken  from  the  wall  or  standard  and 
readily  cleaned  out  of  doors.  By  having  them  movable,  there  are 
fewer  crevices  in  which  to  harbor  lice  and  mites.  Cleanliness  is 
of  paramount  importance  in  the  laying  house.  All  fixtures  should 
be  constructed  with  this  idea  in  view,  having  as  few  joints  as  pos- 
sible, and  so  designed  that  they  can  be  taken  apart,  if  necessary, 
to  reach  all  unexposed  parts.  They  should  be  so  made  that  a 
disinfectant  solution,  when  thoroughly  applied,  will  reach  all  parts. 

Location. — The  house  is  designed  for  the  birds,  the  capacity 
being  determined  largely  by  the  number  of  square  feet  of  floor 
space;  therefore,  none  of  the  portable  fixtures  should  be  placed 
on  the  ground,  but  should  be  raised  above  the  floor  at  least  a  foot 
(Fig.  93),  on  elevated  platforms  or  hanging  on  the  walls.  Atten- 
tion to  this  one  feature  will  give  birds  more  room  for  exercise,  or 
more  birds  can  be  kept  in  the  house,  thus  reducing  the  cost  per 
bird.  In  order  to  economize  wall  space,  in  some  pens,  it  is  necessary 
to  plan  carefully  the  arrangement  of  the  fixtures. 

Perches. — It  is  the  natural  habit  of  all  kinds  of  poultry  (not 
including  water  fowls)  to  perch  or  roost  at  night  on  elevated  places, 
as  branches  of  trees.  It  is  not  a  good  practice  to  allow  mature 
birds,  of  the  heavy  breeds,  to  roost  directly  on  the  floor.  For  the 
heavy  Asiatic  breeds  low  perches  should  be  provided,  only  a  foot 
or  two  above  the  floor.  The  natural  tendency  of  birds  of  the 
lighter  breeds  is  to  seek  as  high  roosting  places  as  possible,  and 
thus  protect  themselves  from  enemies  and  from  cold. 

The  perches  should  be  placed  on  the  lowest  side  or  back  of  the 
house,  farthest  from  the  curtain  front,  as  this  part  of  the  house  is 

143 


144 


POULTRY  FIXTURES 


the  warmest.  By  so  doing  space  is  utilized  which  usually  is  not 
high  enough  to  allow  the  attendant  to  work  conveniently  (Fig.  93). 
Amount  of  Space  Required. — The  amount  of  perch  room  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  the  birds.  Birds  need  more  roosting  space  in 
the  summer  than  in  the  winter,  but  under  general  conditions  the 
following  amount  of  room  would  be  needed  by  the  various  breeds : 
About  seven  or  eight  inches  of  perch  room  is'  required  by  a  hen  of 
the  lighter  breeds,  such  as  Leghorns;  about  eight  to  nine  inches 
for  the  Plymouth  Rocks  and  others  of  medium  size;  and  about 
ten  or  twelve  inches  for  the  largest  birds,  such  as  Brahmas  and 
Cochins.  In  the  winter  months  they  will  not  occupy  all  of  this 


FIG.  93. — Arrangement  of  nests,  perches,  and  dropping  boards.     A,  suspended;  B  and  C, 
attached  to  back  wall. 

room,  but  it  allows  them  sufficient  space  to  gain  access  to  the 
perches  and  to  move  about  without  interfering. 

Materials. — Perches  can  be  made  from  2x2  inch,  2x3  inch, 
or  2  x  4  inch  scantling,  placed  either  on  edge  or  with  the  wide 
surface  up.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  opinion  as  to  which  method 
is  the  best,  but  it  is  certain  that  wide  perches  do  not  allow  the  birds 
to  lock  themselves  securely  while  sleeping,  as  nature  intended,  and 
narrow  perches  are  apt  to  develop  corns.  It  is  well  to  round  the 
two  upper  corners,  doing  away  with  the  extremely  sharp  edges. 
Dressed  lumber  should  be  used,  as  unplaned  material  is  often  very 
rough,  furnishing  places  for  red  mites. 

Construction  of  Perches. — The  perches  should  always  be  easily 
removed,  either  as  a  unit  or  separately.  There  are  a  number  of 
different  ways  of  supporting  them.  When  narrow  pens  are  used 
they  are  sawed  the  exact  width  of  the  pen  and  allowed  to  set  in 
notches  cut  in  strips,  the  strips  being  fastened  to  the  inside  wall. 
For  wider  pens  the  roosts  must  be  provided  with  supports  in  the 
centre.  When  2x2  inch  scantling  is  used,  they  should  be  sup- 


ROOSTING  CLOSETS  145 

ported  every  five  feet;  when  2x4  inch  is  used  every  eight  feet  will 
do.  If  dropping  boards  are  used,  the  perches  are  usually  placed 
above  them  at  a  distance  of  about  eight  inches,  or  high  enough 
so  that  a  hoe  can  be  freely  manipulated  under  them  when  cleaning. 
A  very  simple  and  efficient  method  of  constructing  perches  is 
to  make  them  as  one  unit,  hinging  the  unit  to  the  back  wall  and 
supporting  it  by  two  or  more  legs  at  the  front.  Such  a  perch  can 
be  raised  when  cleaning,  and  also  it  may  be  hooked  to  the  ceiling 
during  winter  days,  thus  keeping  the  birds  off  their  perches  and 
on  the  floor  where  they  will  be  working.  In  determining  the  exact 
height  of  the  perch,  the  character  of  the  birds  is  to  be  considered. 
The  light,  active  birds  fly 
high  with  no  injury  to  them- 
selves, and  perches  for  Leg- 
horns can  safely  be  four  feet 
above  the  ground;  for  the 
Cochins  and  Langshans  one 
or  two  feet  is  usually  high 
enough.  The  roosts  in  any 

One     rOOm     mUSt     always,    be  FIG.  94.— Roosting  closets  to  prevent  drafts 

level   With    each     Other.       The     at  ni£ht-      Curtains  may  be  placed  in  front  of 

these  in  cold  climates. 

height  of  the  perch  will  be 

determined  in  part  by  the  character  of  the  floor.  With  a  soft 
floor  provided  with  an  abundance  of  litter,  there  is  less  danger  of 
birds  injuring  their  feet  when  jumping  from  the  roosts. 

There  are  a  number  of  patented  roosts  and  supports  on  the  market, 
made  of  iron  and  other  material;  the  general  advantage  claimed  for 
these  is  that  they  are  proof  against  mites  and  lice,  but  they  have 
little  if  any  advantage  over  well-constructed,  portable  wood  roosts. 

Roosting  Closets. — When  the  roosts  are  placed  at  the  back  of 
the  building,  it  is  often  the  practice  to  build  solid  partitions  be- 
tween the  pens.  In  long  houses  this  partition  may  be  constructed 
every  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  at  right  angles  to  the  perches  and  back 
wall,  extending  two  feet  beyond  the  front  perch.  This  divides 
the  roosting  area  into  separate  compartments,  which  are  often 
called  "closets"  (Fig.  94).  These  may  be  still  more  securely 
enclosed  by  providing  muslin  drop  curtains  in  front.  Such  roosting 
closets  are  used  in  large  pens  where  but  few  birds  are  kept;  also 
where  the  more  delicate,  active  breeds  are  housed  in  extremely  cold, 
unprotected  locations.  The  use  of  the  muslin  curtain  in  front  of 
the  roosts  should  be  limited  in  mild  weather,  as  it  is  possible  to  keep 
10 


146  POULTRY  FIXTURES 

the  birds  too  closely  confined.  They  may  not  be  supplied  with 
enough  fresh  air;  this  may  result  in  getting  them  into  a  tender  con- 
dition, making  them  liable  to  have  frozen  combs  and  winter  colds. 

Dropping  Boards. — In  order  to  provide  some  means  of  more 
easily  removing  the  droppings  and  keeping  the  house  in  a  better 
sanitary  condition,  dropping  boards  or  platforms  under  the  perches 
have  come  into  quite  general  use.  This  facilitates  the  saving  of 
large  amounts  of  manure  for  fertilizer  purposes.  The  dropping 
boards  are  placed  under  the  perches,  usually  at  a  distance  of  eight 
to  ten  inches,  being  supported  from  the  floor  by  legs  or  hung  from 
the  ceiling  by  rods  or  wires.  In  narrow  pens  they  rest  on  cleats 
nailed  to  the  walls.  In  small  houses  dropping  boards  are  often 
made  movable  so  that  they  will  slide  similar  to  a  drawer.  They 
should  be  constructed  of  matched  lumber,  having  a  perfectly 
smooth  upper  surface.  It  is  best  to  have  the  boards  run  perpen- 
dicular to  the  perches,  or  in  the  direction  which  it  is  necessary  for 
the  attendant  to  work  when  cleaning  them  with  a  hoe.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  clean  them,  under  general  conditions,  about  twice  a  week. 
It  is  possible  by  the  use  of  absorbents,  such  as  land  plaster  or  dry 
loam,  to  keep  the  droppings  dry.  This  will  allow  of  less  frequent 
cleaning.  Eliminating  the  dropping  boards  by  the  substitution  of 
an  absorbing  material,  such  as  peat  moss,  on  the  floor  under  the 
perches  is  possible.  This  reduces  labor;  but  also  reduces  the  floor 
space,  which  more  than  balances  the  labor  item. 

Nests. — All  breeds  of  poultry  have  by  nature  a  nesting  habit, 
and  they  desire  to  find  some  secluded  spot,  usually  darkened,  for 
their  eggs.  For  this  reason,  nests  should  be  provided  which  will 
offer  the  most  inducement  to  the  birds  to  lay  in  one  place;  thus 
the  danger  of  losing  the  eggs  will  be  prevented.  Clean  eggs  will 
be  insured  and  much  labor  saved  in  their  collection  if  good  nests 
are  provided.  Even  when  allowed  free  range  the  birds  will  usually 
come  back  to  their  roosting  place  to  lay  if  there  are  suitable  nests. 
It  is  a  natural  habit  for  hens  to  make  their  own  nests,  yet  the  more 
domesticated  they  become  the  less  pronounced  is  this  habit.  Some 
prefer  to  lay  in  nests  with  other  hens.  Nest  eggs  are  useful  because 
they  induce  the  birds  to  lay  in  the  same  place  each  time,  and  tend 
to  cause  a  greater  distribution  of  eggs  and  less  crowding  in  the  nests. 

Nest  Construction. — (1)  Nests  should  be  darkened,  so  that  the 
birds  feel  secluded  and  protected.  After  laying  they  do  not  remain 
so  long  on  the  nests  and  break  the  eggs.  If  eggs  are  broken  in 
light  nests,  it  may  result  in  developing  the  habit  of  egg  eating. 


TYPES  OP'  NESTS 


147 


(2)  Nests  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  is  easy  for  the  atten- 
dant to  see  and  remove  any  eggs  in  them, 

(3)  They  should  be  constructed  large  enough  for  the  birds  to  sit  on 
the  nest;  12  x  14  inches  may  be  required  for  the  large  breeds  and  8x 
12  inches  or  10  x  12  inches  for  the  light  breeds.  If  nests  are  too  large, 
eggs  are  broken  by  two  or  more  hens  crowding  into  them  at  once. 

(4)  Nests  should  be  movable,  so  that  they  can  be  easily  taken 
out  and  thoroughly  cleaned.     The  nesting  material  is  the  first 
place  in  the  house  where  mites  and  lice  are  usually  found,  and  if 
they  can  be  controlled  there,  freedom  from  such  enemies  is  more 
easily  maintained. 


FIG.  95. — Four  ways  of  locating  nests, — end  boards  are  removed  to  show  construction. 
Eggs  are  taken  out  from  the  covered  nests  by  raising  the  door,  d. 

Number  of  Nests. — There  should  be  nests  enough  so  that  the 
hens  will  not  be  compelled  to  crowd.  Number  is  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  flock  in  the  spring  or  during  the  heavy  laying  season. 
A  safe  number  is  one  nest  to  every  three  or  four  layers. 

Materials  Used. — Wood  smoothly  planed  is  usually  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  nests.  They  should  be  securely  built.  Boards 
seven-eighths'  inch  thick  and  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide,  with 
square  edges,  can  be  made  into  very  good  nests.  Soap-boxes, 
nail-kegs,  lemon-crates,  and  egg-cases  are  often  made  over  into 
good  poultry  nests,  but  they  are  less  sanitary  than  well-made  nests. 

Types  of  Nests. — There  are  a  great  number  of  types  and  designs 
in  nest  construction,  each  having  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
Figure  95  shows  some  of  these  types. 


148 


POULTRY  FIXTURES 


Location  of  Nests. — The  exact  location  of  the  nests  depends 
upon:  (1)  The  plan  of  the  house;  (2)  the  amount  of  space  avail- 
able; (3)  the  character  of  the  birds;  and  (4)  the  type  of  nest. 
The  most  economical  place  is  to  have  them  suspended  under  the 
dropping  board  and  arranged  so  that  the  birds  enter  them  from 
the  back;  a  hinged  door  on  the  front  allows  the  eggs  to  be  removed 
easily.  Space  is  utilized  which  otherwise  could  not  be  used.  A 


FIG.  96. — Dark  Wall  nests,  arranged  in 
tiers. 


FIG.  97. — Coop  for  broody  hens.     Hens 
are  confined  until  "cured." 


great  many  pens  of  the  long  type  do  not  provide  enough  wall  room 
for  all  the  nests.  Where  large  numbers  of  nests  are  necessary,  it 
is  sometimes  advisable  to  place  them  two  or  three  tiers  high 
(Fig.  96). 

Advantages  of  Trap  Nests. — Trap  nests  are  recommended  for 
use  by  poultrymen  who  desire  to  get  individual  laying  records  and 
special  pedigrees  of  their  stock.  Trap  nests  aid  in  picking  out 
the  best  producers  and  elimination  of  the  poor  layers.  They  aid 
in  the  detection  and  isolation  of  diseases.,  such  as  white  diarrhoea. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  TRAP  NESTS 


149 


A. 


They  are  used  on  many  of  the  large  poultry  plants  where  special 
breeding  pens  are  kept,  and  then  only  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  months.  Breeders  of  fancy  poultry  find  much  benefit  from 
their  use,  as  they  are  able 
to  study  the  qualities  trans- 
mitted by  each  individual.  It 
is  possible  to  make  matings 
with  a  greater  degree  of  cer- 
tainty as  to  the  results  which 
will  be  obtained.  Increased 
profits  come  largely  through 
the  keeping  of  better  birds; 
this  means  the  selection  and 
breeding  from  the  best.  It  is 
not  practicable  to  use  trap  nests 
for  the  average  laying  flock. 

If  trap  nests  are  used,  they 
must  be  attended  to  regularly 
and  the  birds  let  out  at  fre- 
quent intervals.    A  complete 
round  should  be  made  at  least 
every  hour,  starting  at  nine 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  until 
the  laying  is  over  for  the  day. 
If  this  is  not  done,  the  vital- 
ity and   usefulness  of  the 
birds  confined  is  greatly  im- 
paired, and  their  produc- 
tion   is   sure  to  decrease. 
Much   labor    is    thus    re- 
quired, but  trained  persons 
are  not  necessary. 

Designs  of  Trap  Nests. 
— There  are  a  great  many 
types  of  nests  made,  only 
a  few  of  which  work  well. 
In  practically  all  types  the 
nests  are  so  constructed  that  when  the  hen  enters  she  releases  a 
spring  or  trigger  which  allows  the  door  to  close  behind  her,  and 
she  cannot  leave  the  nest  nor  can  another  hen  enter  until  the 
attendant  has  removed  her  and  reset  the  trap. 


B. 

FIG.  98. — Pearl  or  Maine  State  trap  nest, 
side  removed.  A,  open ;  B,  sprung  or  shut.  The 
weight  of  the  hen  on  the  hinged  bottom  keeps 
the  door  closed.  (Photo  by  Raymond  Pearl.) 


FIG.  99. — Improved  Connecticut  trap  nest. 
Centre  nest  open;  the  hen  on  entering  raises  the 
door  and  allows  the  trigger  to  fall;  this  locks  the 
door  shut  until  the  attendant  comes.  (Tops  re- 
moved for  photographing.) 


150 


POULTRY  FIXTURES 


The  following  points  should  be  considered  in  the  design  and 
construction  of  a  trap  nest.  It  should  be  large  and  roomy,  and 
of  considerable  depth,  so  that  the  egg  will  not  be  trampled  upon 
while  the  hen  is  waiting  to  be  removed.  About  twelve  inches  wide, 
eighteen  to  twenty  inches  deep,  and  fourteen  inches  high  is  a  very 
efficient  size.  The  trap  arrangement  should  be  so  delicate  that 
the  bird  cannot  enter  without  causing  the  door  to  lock  automatic- 
ally and  keep  her  from  leaving  the  nest  and  prevent  another  hen 

a 


\ 


FIG.  100. — The  Cornell  trap  nest.  When  entering,  the  hen  steps  on  the  wooden  cleat 
which  closes  the  door  behind  her.  A  latch  at  the  top  holds  it  closed.  The  fourth  nest  shows 
attendant  removing  the  hen.  (Courtesy  J.  E.  Rice.) 

from  entering.  It  must  be  so  constructed  that  only  one  bird  can 
enter  the  nest  at  one  time.  The  trap  arrangement  should  be  so 
located  that  it  will  remain  free  from  obstruction,  such  as  nesting 
material,  which  would  hinder  its  proper  working.  Simplicity  in 
the  manner  of  trapping  is  to  be  desired;  the  fewer  working  parts 
the  better,  as  they  are  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  Figures  98, 
99,  and  100  show  some  efficient  types  of  trap  nests. 

Broody  Coops. — Every  pen  should  be  provided  with  an  avail- 
able coop  for  the  isolation  of  broody  hens  (Fig.  97).  A  very  dtv 


ALLEYS  15! 

sirable  place  for  such  a  coop  is  at  one  end  of  the  perches,  on  a 
level  with  the  dropping  board.  A  slatted  bottom  is  essential,  as 
it  keeps  broody  hens  from  squatting  on  the  floor.  The  sides  of  the 
coop  may  be  constructed  of  slats  or  one-inch-mesh  wire.  They 
should  be  so  made  as  to  admit  of  easy  cleaning,  a  door  being  pro- 
vided which  will  allow  the  birds  to  be  easily  removed  or  placed 
in  the  coop. 

Such  a  coop  may  also  be  used  for  the  housing  of  surplus  cockerels 
when  the  alternating  system  is  used.  It  is  a  desirable  and  necessary 
adjunct  in  the  equipment  of  the  laying  house. 

Dust  Boxes. — Large,  deep,  dust  boxes  are  essential  in  the  lay- 
ing pens.  A  dust  bath  is  as  necessary  for  the  health  of  birds  as 
a  water  bath  is  to  the  health  of  many  other  animals.  By  its  use 
the  bird  is  enabled  to  rid  itself  of  lice  and  to  remove  all  scales  and 
dirt  from  the  skin.  It  should  be  deep  enough  to  hold  about  six 
inches  of  dusting  material,  and  is  usually  located  in  a  corner  of 
the  pen,  elevated  above  the  floor  so  that  it  will  not  get  filled  with 
straw  or  other  litter  from  the  floor.  If  flat-topped  nests  are  used, 
the  dust  box  may  be  placed  above  the  nests.  In  some  cases  it  is 
placed  at  one  end  of  the  dropping  board.  Some  authorities  rec- 
ommend the  enclosing  of  the  dust  box,  allowing  the  birds  to  enter 
and  leave  through  a  small  opening.  It  is  claimed  that  the  inside 
of  the  house  is  kept  cleaner  and  more  free  from  dust,  which  may 
have  a  detrimental  effect  upon  the  birds.  Practice  hardly  warrants 
the  enclosing  of  the  box,  as  the  birds  usually  come  from  the  box 
to  shake  their  feathers,  bringing  the  dust  with  them. 

For  dusting,  the  substance  should  be  very  light,  fine,  and  dry. 
The  finer  the  better.  Being  designed  to  kill  lice,  it  must  be  fine 
enough  to  fill  the  breathing  pores  of  these  parasites.  Sandy  loam 
mixed  with  road  dust  makes  a  fairly  good  dusting  material.  If 
sand  or  road  dust  is  used,  sifted  coal  ashes  aid  in  making  it  finer. 
A  good  dusting  material  is  composed  of  equal  parts  of  loam,  sand, 
and  sifted  coal  ashes,  with  about  three  per  cent  by  weight  of 
kerosene  oil,  thoroughly  mixed  together.  The  dust  box  should  be 
placed  where  sunlight  can  shine  into  it,  and  must  be  kept  free 
from  all  litter  and  other  foreign  matter. 

Alleys,  or  hall-ways,  are  often  constructed  in  the  rear  of  long 
poultry  houses  with  the  idea  of  facilitating  the  work  of  caring  for 
the  birds.  Each  separate  pen  opens  from  the  alley.  If  extremely 
long  houses  are  divided  into  a  large  number  of  small  pens,  the  alleys 
have  many  advantages.  It  is  sometimes  practicable  to  construct  a 


152  POULTRY  FIXTURES 

house  of  this  type  and  have  the  partition  between  the  pen  and  the 
alley  so  arranged  that  all  the  work  of  cleaning  the  dropping  boards, 
collecting  the  eggs,  watering,  and  feeding  can  be  done  directly 
from  the  alley,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  work  can  always  be  done 
with  the  greatest  degree  of  efficiency  in  this  manner. 

There  are  a  number  of  disadvantages  in  having  an  alley  in  the 
house.  The  alley,  being  at  the  rear,  requires  the  building  to  have 
a  high  roof.  The  house  is  much  colder,  as  there  is  from  one-fifth 
to  one-seventh  additional  head  room  to  heat  up  and  no  extra  in- 
crease in  floor  space.  The  roosting  quarters  are  not  in  a  desirable 
location,  the  centre  often  being  drafty,  and  no  means  is  provided 
for  conserving  the  heat  from  the  bodies  of  the  fowls.  Such  houses 
cost  more  to  construct  compared  with  the  number  of  birds.  They 
are  always  more  or  less  drafty,  as  the  long,  narrow  alley  in  the  back 
offers  an  unobstructed  passage  for  air  to  sweep  from  one  end  of  the 
building  to  the  other.  The  use  of  cloth  doors  at  intervals  across 
the  alley  may  be  used  to  check  the  draft.  The  house  with  an  alley 
is  not  desirable  except  in  the  case  of  a  long  exhibition  house  for 
display  purposes,  brooder  houses,  or  fattening  sheds,  in  which 
case  the  alley  should  be  in  the  centre  if  the  house  is  wide  enough. 
In  every  case  the  alley  should  be  wide  enough  to  allow  an  attendant 
to  pass  easily  with  a  load  in  each  hand. 

Feed  troughs  are  used  principally  for  the  feeding  of  wet  mashes, 
chopped  vegetables,  or  sprouted  oats.  They  should  not  be  used  for 
the  feeding  of  ground  or  whole  grains,  for  a  large  proportion  of  the 
ground  feed  is  wasted,  and  the  grain  is  better  fed  in  litter  so  the 
birds  are  compelled  to  exercise  sufficiently  while  eating.  There 
are  a  number  of  different  types  of  construction  (Fig.  101) ;  the  idea 
should  be  to  make  them  deep  enough  to  hold  the  feed  and  to  pro- 
tect the  contents  from  contamination  and  waste  by  keeping  the 
birds  from  standing  in  them  while  eating. 

The  best  material  for  the  construction  of  feed  troughs  is  planed 
lumber  one  inch  thick  and  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  wide.  All 
joints  should  be  made  tight,  and  they  should  be  so  constructed 
that  they  cannot  be  overturned  by  the  birds.  It  is  better  to  have  a 
number  of  small  troughs  from  six  to  twelve  inches  wide  and  two  to 
five  feet  long  than  one  large  one,  as  they  can  be  readily  carried  from 
place  to  place  and  are  more  easily  cleaned.  The  birds  can  shift  from 
place  to  place,  thus  allowing  the  weak  ones  a  better  chance  at  the 
feed.  They  should  be  made  so  that  they  can  be  easily  cleaned; 
this  is  necessary,  as  they  are  used  for  material  which  sours  easily. 


SELF-FEEDING  HOPPERS  153 

Self-feeding  Hoppers.— A  great  number  of  styles  and  types  of 
feed  hoppers  are  used  for  the  feeding  of  dry  ground  grains  and  whole 
grains.  They  are  used  more  generally  for  the  feeding  of  dry  mash 
kept  before  the  birds  all  the  time.  Where  they  have  been  used  in 
the  feeding  of  whole  grains,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  have  proved 
efficient  except  in  the  case  of  growing  chicks  on  free  range.  The 


FIG.  101. — Common  types  of  feeding  troughs,     a,   Open  V-shaped;  b,  square  form; 
c,  V-shaped,  covered. 

hoppers  designed  to  feed  whole  grain  automatically  do  not  induce 
sufficient  exercise.  They  supply  grain  too  liberally  unless  they 
become  clogged. 

The  pens  should  be  visited  often  enough  to  supply  the  grain 
ration  in  litter. 

A  successful  dry-mash  hopper  should  possess  the  following 
features : 

It  should  be  of  large  capacity,  thus  economizing  labor  in  filling. 
A  hopper  holding  from  two  to  four  bushels  will  not  require  filling 


154 


POULTRY  FIXTURES 


oftener  than  once  every  two  or  three  weeks,  depending,  of  course, 
upon  the  number  of  birds  having  access  to  it. 

To  be  labor  saving  it  should  be  automatic,  in  that  it  is  self- 
feeding;  as  the  birds  eat  the  mash  away  from  the  opening,  other 
material  should  gradually  come  down.  While  this  feature  is 
attempted,  in  a  great  many  types  of  hoppers  the  mash  is  found  to 
clog,  and  it  requires  considerable  attention  to  keep  the  mash  feed- 
ing properly.  Hoppers  with  small  throats  and  extensive  taper  to 
the  sides  have  a  tendency  to  clog  in  this  manner. 

The  feeding  surface  should  be  provided  with  a  hinged  cover,  so 
arranged  as  to  admit  of  closing  it  when  desired.  It  is  best  to  leave 

the  hopper  open  only  a  few 
hours  of  the  day,  in  the  case 
of  fat  hens  of  the  heavier 
breeds.  It  is  often  well  to 
close  the  hopper  at  night  to 
keep  out  rats. 

It  is  important  that  the 
hopper  should  be  nonwasting. 
The  practice  of  feeding  dry 
mash  in  self-feeding  hoppers 
is  usually  one  of  the  most 
efficient  feeding  methods,  pro- 
vided the  right  hoppers  are 
used;  but  if  the  birds  while 
eating  waste  the  mash  it  is  a 
most  inefficient  practice. 

The  hopper  should  be  easily 
and  quickly  filled. 
It  should  be  long  enough  so  that  a  number  of  birds  can  feed 
from  it  at  one  time. 

The  top  should  slope  to  prevent  birds  from  roosting  upon  it. 
Types  of  Hoppers. — There  are  a  great  many  types  of  commer- 
cial hoppers  for  sale  by  leading  poultry-supply  houses,  represent- 
ing a  great  variation  in  efficiency  and  cost.    Most  of  these  com- 
mercial hoppers  are  made  of  metal  and  are  of  limited  capacity, 
and  there  are  very  few  types  which  fulfil  all  the  requirements  out- 
lined above.    The  average  poultry  man  can  construct  a  hopper  of 
wood  at  a,  low  cost  which  will  meet  all  the  requirements.    Figure 
102  shows  a  good  type  of  home-made  hopper  for  the  laying  house. 
In  constructing  a  hopper,  the  size  should  be  determined  by  the 


FIG.    102. — A  home-made  dry-mash    hopper, 
feeding  from  both  sides,  for  large  flocks. 


DRINKING  VESSELS 


155 


number  of  birds  that  are  to  feed  from  it.  A  hopper  holding  five 
bushels  is  much  more  efficient  and  more  practical  than  one  holding 
one-half  bushel.  Tongue-and-groove  lumber  without  beads  is  a 
suitable  material  for  the  construction  of  a  hopper. 

Drinking  Vessels.— There  are  two  distinct  types  of  drinking 
utensils,— open  and  closed.  The  open  vessels  are  those  from  which 
the  birds  drink  directly  at  the  surface,  and  as  the  water  is  consumed 
the  surface  is  constantly  lowered.  The  closed  form  of  drinking 
utensil  is  usually  of  the  "  vacuum  "  type.  In  deciding  on  what 
type  to  use,  the  following  features  should  be  considered : 

(1)  Drinking  water  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust 
and  litter;  therefore,  a  covered  drinking  vessel  is  better.  (2)  The 
vessel  should  also  be  of  a  type 
quickly  filled  or  emptied,  and  be 
easily  and  quickly  cleaned.  (3)  It 
should  be  so  constructed  as  to  pre- 
vent the  birds  from  roosting  on  it 
and  polluting  the  water  with  their 
droppings.  (4)  It  should  be  of 
relatively  large  capacity,  for  a 
larger  volume  of  water  remains 
cool  longer  in  the  summer  and 
does  not  freeze  so  quickly  in  the 
winter  as  in  the  case  of  an  ex- 
tremely small  volume. 

Location  of  Fountain. — If  pos- 
sible the  drinking  fountain  should 
be  raised  above  the  floor.  A  good 
place  is  a  small  shelf  or  platform 
raised  a  foot  or  more  above  the 

floor,  considerably  larger  than  the  fountain,  so  that  the  birds  will 
have  room  enough  to  stand  on  the  platform  when  drinking.  In 
the  summer  it  should  be  located,  if  possible,  where  no  sun  will 
shine  directly  upon  it  and  warm  it  up  quickly.  In  the  winter  it  is 
better  to  have  the  fountain  in  as  sunny  a  place  as  possible. 

Types  of  Drinking  Vessels. — Two  types  of  drinking  vessels 
have  been  mentioned.  The  open  drinking  utensils  are  the  ones 
generally  found  on  poultry  farms.  They  usually  consist  of  a  pail 
or  tub,  kept  as  full  as  possible  of  fresh  water,  located  on  the  floor 
or  on  an  elevated  platform.  When  it  is  desired  to  provide  an 
abundance  of  fresh  water  in  extremely  warm  weather,  the  open 


FIG.  103. — A  practical  drinking  foun- 
tain. A  ten-quart  galvanized  fire  pail 
inverted  in  a  milk  pan  with  three-inch  rim. 


156 


POULTRY  FIXTURES 


V-shaped  troughs  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  must  be  made 
water-tight.  Earthen  pans  or  vessels  are  sometimes  used,  and  if 
glazed  and  kept  clean  they  make  very  economical  open  vessels. 

The  "  vacuum  "  fountain  consists  of  a  large  chamber  filled 
with  water  having  only  one  outlet,  which  is  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  chamber,  communicating  directly  with  a  shallow  pan  or  trough, 
the  edges  of  which  'are  above  the  opening  in  the  water  chamber. 

When  the  vessel  is  filled  and  set 
upright,  and  the  water  has  filled 
the  saucer  or  cup,  air  is  prevented 
from  entering  the  water  chamber, 
and  a  closed  chamber  called  a 
"  vacuum  "  is  formed  on  the  top. 
Outside  air  pressure  holds  the 
water  in. 

From  among  the  various  com- 
mercial types  of  drinking  vessels 
which  are  found  on  the  market  a 
number  of  practical  ones  can  be 
selected.  In  selecting  a  commer- 
cial drinking  fountain  it  is  very 
desirable  to  secure  one  which  allows 
of  separating  the  water  chamber 
from  the  drinking  pan,  as  more 
easily  and  perfectly  cleaned  and 
more  easily  filled.  These  commer- 
cial drinking  fountains  can  be 
secured  in  all  sizes  from  that  re- 
quired for  baby  chicks  to  those  for 
adult  flocks. 

The  usual  commercial  fountains 
are  not  large  enough  for  a  large  number  of  hens  and  they 
are  rather  expensive.  Figure  103  shows  a  practical  device  which 
answers  all  the  requirements  outlined. 

Grit  and  Shell  Boxes. — The  most  economical  way  to  feed  grit 
and  shell  is  to  keep  it  before  the  birds  all  the  time.  There  are 
hoppers  constructed  for  that  purpose  (Fig.  104).  In  this  way  the 
birds  can  have  constant  access  to  this  material,  and  the  cost  of 
feeding  it  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  These  hoppers  resemble  in 
style  a  large  dry-mash  hopper,  but  are  usually  much  smaller.  A 
very  common  practice,  and  a  very  good  one,  is  to  partition  off 


FIG.  104. — A  hopper  for  grit  and  shell. 
These  materials  are  usually  fed  separately 
— not  with  dry  mash. 


GRIT  AND  SHELL  BOXES  157 

one  or  more  small  compartments  in  the  large  dry-mash  hopper  for 
the  feeding  of  grit  and  shell.    These  materials  are  much  heavier 


FIG.  105. — A  group  of  commercial  feeding  appliances. 

than  ground  grains,  and  will  feed  through  small  openings  without 
clogging,  and  there  is  much  less  waste  by  the  birds  (Fig.  105). 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  five  essential  features  to  be  considered  in  planning  poultry  fixtures. 

2.  How  much  perch  room  is  required  per  bird?    Give  variation. 

3.  Discuss  location  and  construction  of  perches. 

4.  What  are  roosting  closets,  and  what  are  their  advantages? 

5.  Give  the  points  in  the  construction  of  dropping  boards. 

6.  Give  the  principles  of  nest  construction. 

7.  Tell  of  the  number  of  nests  required  and  common  types  used. 

8.  What  are  the  essential  points  of  a  good  trap  nest? 

9.  Describe  the  following  nests:     (a)  Cornell;   (6)  Pearl;   (c)  Connecticut. 

10.  What  are  the  possible  uses  of  "broody  coops,"  and  how  are  they  made? 

11.  Why  are  dust  boxes  needed? 

12.  Give  a  good  dusting  material. 

13.  Describe  a  house  with  alley;  give  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

14.  What  are  the  uses  of  open  feeding  troughs? 

15.  Give  points  in  their  construction. 

16.  Give  the  necessary  features  of  a  good  dry-mash  hopper. 

17.  Describe  an  efficient  home-made  hopper. 

18.  Describe  two  types  of  fountains. 

19.  What  are  the  desirable  points  in  a  drinking  fountain? 

20.  Why  have  grit  and  shell  hoppers? 

References.— Labor-saving  Poultry  Appliances,  by  Rice  and  Rogers, 
Cornell  Bulletin  284.  New  Poultry  Appliances,  by  Rice  and  Lawry,  Cornell 
Bulletin  248.  Hoppers  for  Poultry  Feeding,  in  United  States  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin 316.  Water  Pan  for  Poultry,  in  United  States  Farmers'  Bulletin  317. 
Poultry-house  Plans  and  Appliances,  by  C.  A.  Rogers,  Cornell  Circular  No.  1. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
YARDS  AND  YARDING. 

ONE  of  the  vital  questions  for  each  poultryman  to  answer  is: 
Will  it  be  necessary  to  provide  yards  for  the  birds  or  will  it  be 
possible  to  give  them  free  range?  Yards,  at  their  best,  are  a  dis- 
advantage in  successful  poultry  keeping,  as  poultry  do  better 
under  all  conditions  if  given  an  abundance  of  range.  On  small 
intensive  plants  or  where  crops  would  be  injured  by  the  birds, 
close  yarding  is  necessary. 

On  commercial  plants  the  restriction  or  confinement  of  the 
stock  to  a  small  enclosure  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  If  a 
number  of  breeds  are  kept  for  fancy  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to 
insure  a  complete  separation  of  the  flocks  and  fencing  is  essential. 

Size. — When  fences  are  required,  the  area  enclosed  should  be 
made  as  large  as  possible.  The  amount  of  yard  room  required 
will  vary  with  the  breed  kept,  and  the  shape  of  the  yard,  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  and  whether  or  not  the  yard  is  to  be  kept  perma- 
nently in  sod.  The  light,  active  breeds  are  more  destructive,  and 
also  require  greater  area  when  kept  in  confinement.  The  heavy 
meat  breeds  require  only  a  small  area  enclosed  with  a  low  fence. 

Fertile  soils,  capable  of  producing  good  crops,  will  provide 
forage  material  in  abundance.  This  will  require  a  smaller  area 
than  for  yards  on  poor  and  unproductive  soils.  It  is  best  to  keep 
a  permanent  yard  in  sod,  thus  providing  green  feed  with  a  minimum 
amount  of  labor.  If  the  yards  are  small  and  the  crops  are  fre- 
quently planted,  much  labor  and  seed  are  required  in  maintaining 
them. 

With  permanent  sod  yards  in  good  condition,  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  square  feet  per  bird  will  provide  ample  room, 
and  the  sod  will  remain  permanent  except  near  the  house.  If 
green  feed  is  to  be  grown  in  alternate  yards,  from  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  square  feet  or  more  should  be  allowed  each  bird.  Enough  yard 
room  should  be  provided  to  insure  a  constant  supply  of  forage 
material.  If  this  is  done,  the  birds  will  rarely  attempt  to  fly  over 
fences  in  search  of  other  feed. 

When  temporary  yards  are  used  and  changed  occasionally, 
much  smaller  areas  than  given  above  will  do,  if  crops  on  them  are 
158 


ADVANTAGES  OF  DOUBLE  YARDING 


159 


rotated,  or  if  rest  periods  of  a  year  or  more  are  allowed  between 
the  periods  of  use. 

The  Shape  of  the  Yard  Influences  the  Cost.— It  is  much  cheaper 
to  fence  a  square  yard  than  a  rectangular  one,  as  it  requires  less 
fencing  material  and  less  labor.  Long  yards  insure  a  more  per- 
manent growth,  but  square  yards  are  more  easily  worked  and 
seeded.  Triangular  yards  with  acute  angles  in  the  corners  should 
be  avoided,  as  they  form  a  catch-all  for  leaves  and  rubbish  and 
do  not  readily  allow  of  plowing  nor  cultivation.  Long  and  narrow 
yards  provide  a  larger  amount  of  green  feed  than  the  same  area 


FIG    106. — A  good  method  of  double  yarding  and  crop  rotation.     The  corn  provides  shade 
while  the  fruit  trees  are  growing.     (Photo  from  Purdue  University.) 

in  the  form  of  a  square,  as  the  birds  stay  near  the  house  and  do 
not  feed  at  a  distance  until  that  near  at  hand  is  consumed. 

Advantages  of  Double  Yarding. — A  system  of  double  yarding 
is  often  provided  when  it  is  impossible  to  give  birds  free  range. 
When  double  yards  are  used,  a  more  nearly  constant  supply  of 
green  feed  can  be  grown  (Fig.  106).  The  double  yards  allow  a 
change  in  rotation  of  the  birds  from  one  yard  to  another.  They 
are  thus  kept  clean  and  free  from  filth,  which  is  important  on  heavy 
soil.  Even  with  small  runs  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  divide 
them  in  half  and  rotate,  the  birds  feeding  on  one  part  and  then  on 
the  other.  Single  yarding  may  require  the  feeding  of  green  feed 
from  outside  sources,  which  entails  extra  labor  in  harvesting  and 
feeding  it  to  them.  This  feature  is  eliminated  by  double  yarding. 


160  YARDS  AND  YARDING 

Crops  to  Use. — The  following  system  of  crop  rotation  has  been 
found  to  work  out  very  satisfactorily  where  a  double  yard  is  used 
for  one  pen: 

DATE.  YARD  A.  YARD  B. 

March  to  April  30 Peas  and  oats Feeding 

April  30  to  May  25 Feeding Peas  and  barley 

May  25  to  June  15 Dwarf  Essex,  rape Feeding 

June  15  to  July  10 Feeding Buckwheat  and  oats 

July  10  to  August  1 Buckwheat Feeding 

August  1  to  August  20 Feeding Cow  peas  and  millet 

August  20  to  September  20. .  .  Rye,  vetch,  clover Feeding 

September  20  to  December  1 .  Feeding Rye  and  vetch 

The  dates  mentioned  are  for  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia  and 
will  vary  slightly  with  location,  but  the  crops  mentioned  will  grow 
well  in  most  parts  of  the  country.  The  birds  should  not  be  allowed 
to  feed  on  any  crop  until  it  is  from  four  to  six  inches  tall ;  if  allowed 
on  the  crop  too  soon  it  will  not  last  so  long. 

In  following  the  above  scheme,  the  rye  and  vetch  which  were 
seeded  in  yard  B  about  September  20  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
until  planting  time  in  the  spring;  they  will  then  furnish  green  feed 
until  the  spring-planted  crops  are  ready. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  plow  the  yards  for  each  planting.  Two 
plowings,  spring  and  fall,  are  sufficient  on  most  soils.  A  cultivator 
will  serve  for  preparing  the  ground,  and  a  smoothing  harrow  for 
covering  the  seed  when  sown  broadcast. 

The  average  cost  of  growing  and  feeding  succulent  green  feed 
by  the  above  system  was  found  by  actual  experiment  to  be  only 
five  cents  per  hundred  pounds.  The  feed  grown  on  outside  land 
and  carried  to  the  birds  costs  eleven  cents  per  one  hundred 
pounds. 

Methods  of  Double  Yarding. — There  are  three  general  plans 
for  constructing  double  yards  (Fig.  107).  1.  On  many  poultry 
plants  where  the  semi-community  system  is  used  it  is  best  to  pro- 
vide two  front  or  two  back  yards.  The  large  single  yard  which  is 
commonly  found  may  be  divided,  and  will  give  an  abundance  of 
room  for  the  growing  of  crops. 

2.  On  extensive  plants  where  long  houses  are  used,  it  may  be 
possible  to  have  front  and  back  yards,  planning  the  rotation  so 
that  in  fall  and  winter  the  birds  will  be  ranging  in  the  front  yards 
while  a  crop  is  growing  in  the  back  yards  for  use  in  early  spring. 
During  the  summer  both  yards  should  be  rotated  as  often  as 
possible. 


POSTS 


161 


3.  When  it  is  impossible  to  provide  rear  yards  with  the  inten- 
sive long  house,  the  following  method  of  providing  green  forage  at 
the  New  Jersey  Station  is  productive.  The  term  applied  to  this 
system  is  the  "  double  unit "  feeding  yard.  All  pens,  regardless 
of  size,  have  exercise  yards  which  are  plowed  only  once  or  twice 
during  a  season,  and  they  are  usually  bare.  Communicating  with 
each  pair  of  these  exercise  yards  is  a  larger  feeding  and  grazing 
yard  in  which  green  crops  are  grown,  the  birds  being  allowed 
access  to  these  yards  on  alternate  days.  It  is  not  as  good  a  system 

, , .     as  regular  double  yards,  yet   it  enables  the 

keeper  to  supply  green  feed  to  the  birds  in 
the  most  economical  form. 

Posts. — Light  wooden  posts  are  usually 
available,  and  will  answer  very  well  for  poultry 
fences.  The  size  of  the  posts  used  will  depend 
upon  the  kind  of  wood  and  height  of  fence. 


HOUSE 


HOUSE 


HOUSE 


FIG.  107. — Three  methods  of  arranging  double  yards  with  reference  to  the  houses.  I, 
Front  and  back  yard;  II,  a,  exercise  yards;  b,  feeding  yard;  III,  double  yards  at  the  front 
and  side  of  each  compartment  of  the  house. 

Red  cedar  is  very  durable,  and  the  cost,  in  regions  where  it  grows 
naturally,  should  not  be  prohibitive.  A  good  red-cedar  post  should 
be  at  least  ten  feet  long  and  not  smaller  than  three  inches  at  the 
small  end.  Chestnut,  locust,  and  other  hard  woods  which  have 
natural  rot-resisting  qualities  are  good. 

It  has  been  found  profitable  to  dip  the  lower  part  of  the  post 
in  tar,  letting  the  tarred  portion  extend  about  six  inches  above 
the  ground  line.  The  charring  of  that  portion,  by  burning  over  a 
slow  fire,  also  has  a  preservative  effect.  The  bark  should  not  be 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  post  below  or  above  the  ground  line,  as 
water  accumulates  and  hastens  rotting.  Where  natural  round 
posts  are  not  available,  sawed  timber  may  be  used,  4x4  inches 
11 


162 


YARDS  AND  YARDING 


and  3x4  inches  being  suitable  sizes.  Some  preservative  should 
always  be  applied  below  the  ground;  and  even  with  proper  treat- 
ment sawed  hemlock  and  yellow  pine  last  only  about  two-thirds 
as  long  as  good  cedar  posts.  Where  prices  of  wooden  posts  are 
prohibitive,  cement  may  be  economically  used  (Fig.  108). 

It  is  sometimes  desired  to  have  a  neat  and  attractive  fence 
regardless  of  expense.  Iron  posts  may  then  be  used;  either  round 
iron  piping  or  U-shaped  iron,  the  latter  being  more  expensive. 
When  iron  is  used,  it  is  well  to  set  the  posts  in  concrete  to  insure 
stability.  The  poultry  netting  should  be  fastened  to  the  posts  by 
means  of  small,  twisted  wire.  A  very  cheap  and  attractive  fence 


FIG.  108. — Forms  for  making  concrete  fence  posts. 

can  be  made  by  using  one  and  one-quarter  inch,  second-hand  iron 
pipes,  setting  them  in  small  holes  two  feet  deep  filled  with  poured 
concrete.  The  wire  can  be  attached  by  means  of  notches  or  holes 
bored  through  the  pipe  before  it  is  set.  Small  wooden  knobs  can 
be  placed  on  top  of  the  pipes  to  give  a  finished  effect. 

Manner  of  Setting  Posts. — Care  should  be  taken  in  setting  posts 
to  have  them  in  true  lines.  Before  starting  to  dig  the  holes,  the 
exact  location  should  be  marked  with  a  stake,  to  insure  a  straight, 
neat,  and  attractive  appearance  when  complete.  The  distance 
between  them  for  the  average  poultry  fence  should  be  about  twelve 
feet.  The  distance  at  corners  near  gates,  or  where  bracing  must 
be  used,  should  be  ten  feet.  The  holes  should  be  dug  about  two 


FENCING  MATERIAL 


163 


and  one-half  feet  deep,  and  considerably  larger  than  the  diameter 
of  the  posts  to  allow  some  movement  for  alignment,  and  to  allow 
of  tamping  the  soil  thoroughly  when  the  holes  are  being  filled.  If 
wooden  posts  are  used,  it  is  very  desirable  to  fill  the  bottom  of  the 
hole  with  crushed  stone,  cinders,  or  coarse  gravel,  to  give  better 
drainage,  thus  increasing  the  life  of  the  post  by  drawing  the  moist- 
ure away  from  it.  When  filling  the  post  hole,  the  post  should  be 
held  in  line  and  the  dirt  tamped  securely  from  the  very  bottom  of 
the  hole  to  the  top  to  insure  permanence  and  rigidity  from  the  start. 
When  long  stretches  of  wire  are  used  it  is  necessary  to  securely 
brace  the  corner  posts  and  all  points  where  the  greatest  pull  occurs. 


Fiu.  109. — Manner  of  bracing  a  corner  fence  post  (a).    The  pull  is  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow.    The  cleats  on  the  bottom  of  the  corner  post  prevent  its  turning  or  twisting. 

They  should  be  braced  below  ground  to  prevent  twisting,  and  above 
ground  to  prevent  leaning.    Figure  109  shows  this  construction. 

Fencing  Material. — The  most  common  material  used  for  poul- 
try fences  is  wire  netting  with  hexagonal  or  octagonal  meshes  of 
different  widths.  It  is  sold  under  various  trade  names.  In  pur- 
chasing poultry  netting  be  sure  that  it  is  properly  galvanized; 
preferably  the  wire  should  be  galvanized  before  and  after  weaving, 
so  it  will  not  rust  out  at  the  joints  so  quickly.  This  netting  comes 
hi  .various  sizes  of  mesh  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  up  to  three 
inches.  The  two-inch  mesh  is  desirable  for  adult  birds  and  the 
three-quarter  inch  for  baby  chicks. 


164  YARDS  AND  YARDING 

The  height  of  the  fence  will  be  determined  by  the  number  and 
type  of  birds  to  be  kept  and  the  area  of  the  range.  Under  most 
conditions,  even  with  the  active  breeds  an  eight-foot  fence  is  the 
limit  to  which  it  is  profitable  to  go,  for  a  bird  that  will  fly  over  an 
eight-foot  fence  will  just  as  easily  fly  over  a  twelve-foot  one.  When 
it  is  desired  to  enclose  a  large  field,  a  five-foot  fence  is  usually 
high  enough.  When  building  poultry  fences  that  are  six  feet  or 
more  in  height,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  stretch  two  lengths  of  poultry 
netting,  one  above  the  other,  using  three-foot  or  four-foot  widths, 
according  to  the  height  desired.  The  middle  selvage  edges  should 
be  twisted  together,  after  the  lower  one  is  firmly  stretched  and 
secured  in  place.  Such  a  fence,  when  complete,  looks  neater,  can 
be  stretched  better,  and  is  more  efficient  than  if  made  of  one  strand 
of  six-foot  wire. 

Where  small  chicks  are  to  be  confined,  or  on  ranges  for  growing 
stock,  it  may  be  desirable  to  use  one  width  of  small-mesh  wire  at 
the  bottom.  This  will  have  a  tendency  to  keep  out  rats,  skunks, 
and  weasels,  as  well  as  confine  the  chicks  when  put  on  range  at 
an  early  age.  In  small  yards  in  front  of  long  houses  where  small 
flocks  are  kept,  each  with  different  males,  it  is  well  to  use  small- 
mesh  wire  to  the  height  at  least  of  two  feet  above  the  ground.  This 
prevents  the  male  birds  from  injury  in  fighting. 

There  are  two  methods  of  fastening  the  poultry  fence  to  the 
ground:  (1)  Stapling  it  to  a  base  board;  (2)  burying  the  edge  in 
the  ground.  Stretch  the  wire  with  one  edge  level  with  the  ground; 
then  nail  a  base  board  to  the  posts,  setting  it  slightly  in  the  ground. 
The  wire  and  board  are  lapped  a  little  and  the  selvage  edge  of  the 
poultry  netting  is  stapled  to  the  board.  It  is  good  practice,  where 
many  males  are  kept  in  adjacent  pens,  to  use  base  boards  to  a 
height  of  thirty  inches,  placing  them  half  an  inch  apart,  with 
poultry  netting  above  them.  This  prevents  the  male  birds  from 
injuring  themselves  or  each  other,  which  is  important  if  they  are 
highly  prized  birds  or  to  be  used  for  show  purposes. 

Another  plan  is  to  place  the  lower  edge  of  the  wire  three  or 
four  inches  in  the  ground  (Fig.  110).  This  is  done  by  plowing  a 
shallow  furrow  along  the  line  before  the  wire  is  stretched  in  place. 
Nail  the  bottom  selvage  to  the  posts  about  four  inches  below  the 
ground  line.  Before  filling  the  trench  it  is  desirable  to  drive  a 
forked  stake  in  the  ground  about  midway  between  the  posts,  hold- 
ing the  wire  in  place.  When  the  trench  is  filled,  this  gives  the  fence 
a  neat  and  attractive  appearance  and  does  not  allow  enemies  to 


GATES 


165 


burrow  under  it,  nor  does  it  allow  the  birds  to  work  under  it,  as  is 
possible  under  a  base  board. 

Where  small  yards  are  necessary,  it  is  sometimes  better  to 
build  complete  wooden  fences;  on  the  exposed  side  of  the  yard 
they  may  serve  as  windbreaks.  Such  a  fence  must  be  built  very 
high,  as  birds  will  more  easily  fly  over  a  wooden  fence  than  a  wire 
one.  They  can  readily  see  the  top  and  have  a  place  to  light  upon. 
Fences  built  of  narrow  slats  or  pickets  are  occasionally  used,  but 


TWO  INCH  MESH  WIRE 


ONE    INCH   MESH  WIRE 


GROUND  LINE 


V 

I 


<»> 


FIG.  110. — A  common  type  of  fence  construction,     a,  Manner  of  anchoring  wire  under 
ground;  b,  wire  buried  a  few  inches  under  ground. 

the  cost  is  usually  prohibitive  and  the  appearance  is  no  better  than 
a  well-built  wire  fence. 

Best  Construction. — One  of  the  best  and  cheapest  poultry 
fences  that  it  is  possible  to  build  is  approximately  seven  feet  high ; 
with  cedar  posts,  twelve  feet  apart;  with  two  strips  of  poultry 
netting,  the  first  strip  of  inch-mesh  wire  three  feet  wide  set  four 
inches  in  the  ground,  and  the  second  strip  of  two-inch  mesh  four 
feet  wide.  In  nailing  the  wire  to  the  posts  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  the  selvage  edges  the  same  distance  apart  on  each  post. 
If  an  attempt  is  made  to  stretch  the  wire  wider  than  its  natural 
width,  it  is  drawn  out  of  shape  and  does  not  make  a  neat  fence. 

Gates. — The  gate  problem  is  one  of  the  most  perplexing  for 
the  poultryman;  for,  at  best,  gates  are  a  necessary  evil.  They  are 
expensive  to  construct,  and  it  takes  time  to  open  and  close  them. 
Where  double  yarding  is  practised  or  where  the  birds  are  divided 


166  YARDS  AND  YARDING 

into  small  flocks,  as  in  small-unit  systems,  a  large  number  of  gates 
are  necessary.  In  each  of  these  cases,  they  must  be  used  frequently 
for  watering  and  feeding,  and  should  be  located  in  the  natural  or 
shortest  path  of  the  attendant,  so  that  he  can  do  the  work  with  the 
fewest  steps.  Where  gates  are  to  be  placed  in  the  fences,  the 
gate  posts  should  be  firmly  braced  as  shown  in  figure  111. 

Construction  of  Gates. — In  the  construction  of  gates,  durability 
should  be  of  first  consideration.  They  are  constantly  subject  to 
a  large  amount  of  wear,  and  the  more  permanently  they  are  made 
the  less  repair  will  be  necessary.  For  large  gates,  2x3  inch  hem- 


FIG.  111. — Ways  of  bracing  gate  posts.    A,  By  using  next  post  in  line,  similar  to  corner 
bracing;  B,  by  overhead  wire,  especially  useful  with  narrow  gates. 

lock  or  yellow  pine,  or  other  material  of  equal  grade,  should  be 
used.  All  joints  should  be  mitered  and  bolted  together  with  wash- 
ered  bolts.  Corner  braces  should  be  used,  and  the  whole  gate 
braced  diagonally  with  round  iron.  For  small  gates  between  com- 
munity pens,  1x4  inch  boards  can  be  used,  lapping  them  at  the 
corners,  and  providing  a  diagonal  brace  running  from  the  bottom 
of  the  gate  on  the  hinged  side  to  the  top  of  the  gate  on  the  free 
side.  This  brace  board  prevents  the  gate  from  sagging  and  adds 
greatly  to  its  rigidity.  Figure  112  shows  a  number  of  types  of 
construction. 

Gates  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  an  attendant  to  pass 
through  with  a  load  in  each  hand,  and  to  pass  a  wheelbarrow 
through  when  desired;  four  feet  may  be  about  the  right  width  for 


MAINTENANCE 


167 


such  purposes.  When  it  is  desired  to  construct  wider  gates  to  allow 
a  two-horse  team  to  pass  through,  it  is  better  to  have  them  con- 
structed in  two  parts,  opening  in  the  centre  and  swinging  each  way. 
Double  strap  hinges  should  be  used;  T-hinges  are  apt  to  pull 
out.  Strap  hinges  will  allow  of  some  latitude  in  lining  up  the  gate 
to  make  it  swing  true.  The  gate  should  be  hung  so  that  when  it 
is  allowed  to  swing  free  it  will  spring  shut.  All  gates  should  be 
provided  with  some  method  of  fastening,  such  as  hooks,  latches, 
or  springs.  Gates  should  be  hung  high  enough  above  the  ground 


FIG.  112. — Types  of  gate  construction.  A,  Best  type,  1x6  inch  white  pine  is  used; 
B,  same  material  with  different  bracing;  C,  corners  mortised  and  bolted,  2x3  inch  material 
used. 

to  give  ample  allowance  for  swinging.  It  is  sometimes  well  to 
place  a  6-inch  or  8-inch  base  board  between  the  ground  and  the 
bottom  of  the  gate,  allowing  the  gate  to  hang  when  shut  just  clear 
of  this  board.  If  wheelbarrows  or  wagons  are  to  pass  through, 
the  base  board  is  omitted. 

Maintenance. — Poultry  fences  constitute  a  heavy  first  cost, 
and  the  depreciation  is  great.  They  are  a  constant  item  of  expense, 
and  should  be  looked  after  constantly.  Any  broken  hinges  or 
hooks,  torn  wire,  rotting  posts,  or  other  defects  should  be  imme- 
diately repaired.  Torn  places  in  the  fence  can  be  easily  mended 
by  weaving  new  wire  over  the  opening.  In  making  such  repairs 
or  when  building  the  fence,  care  should  be  used  to  allow  no  long 


168  YARDS  AND  YARDING 

sharp  points  to  project  into  the  yard,  as  they  are  apt  to  injure 
the  birds.  As  the  galvanizing  on  most  poultry  wire  is  very  short- 
lived, it  is  found  profitable  to  paint  the  poultry  netting  with  a 
good  coat  of  oil  paint  after  it  has  been  up  a  few  years  or  before 
signs  of  rusting  appear. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  factors  will  determine  the  advisability  of  yarding  or  free  range? 

2.  Give  the  area  of  yard  necessary. 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  shape  of  yard  upon  the  cost  and  efficiency  of  feeding? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  double  yarding? 

5.  Give  a  good  crop  rotation  through  the  season  for  double  yarding. 

6.  Enumerate  three  methods  of  double  yarding. 

7.  Name  and  discuss  materials  used  for  poultry  fence  posts. 

8.  Describe  manner  of  setting  posts. 

9.  How  should  corner  posts  be  braced? 

10.  Name  and  describe  materials  used  for  poultry  fences. 

11.  Tell  of  two  methods  of  fastening  fence  to  the  ground. 

12.  Give  construction  of  a  desirable  poultry  fence. 

13.  Tell  of  two  methods  of  bracing  gate  posts. 

14.  Tell  how  to  make  a  good  poultry  gate. 

15.  What  points  should  be  considered  in  locating  poultry  gates? 

16.  Give  importance,  and  tell  how  to  keep  poultry  fences  in  repair. 

References. — Preservation  Treatment  of  Poles,  by  William  H.  Kempfer, 
U.  S.  Forestry  Service  Bulletin  84.  Concrete  and  Concrete  Fence  Posts,  by 
Bainer  and  Bonebright,  Colorado  Bulletin  148.  Construction  of  Concrete 
Fence  Posts,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  403. 


CHAPTER  X. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING. 

BIRDS  differ  in  a  number  of  ways  from  other  farm  animals, 
especially  in  digestion  and  assimilation  of  the  feed  and  in  their 
requirement  for  maintenance  and  production.  They  are  charac- 
terized by  intense  vitality.  The  transformation  of  feed  in  the 
growing  animal  and  the  production  of  eggs  in  the  adult  are  exceed- 
ingly rapid;  their  lives  are  never  sluggish. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Jordan,  of  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  has  compared  a  Leghorn  fowl  that  weighs 
3J  pounds  and  lays  200  eggs  (weighing  25  pounds)  with  a  Jersey 
cow  that  weighs  1,000  pounds  and  gives  in  a  year  7,000  pounds  of 
milk  containing  14  per  cent  of  solids.  He  states: 

"  If  you  take  the  dry  matter  of  the  hen  and  compare  it  with  the  dry  matter 
of  the  eggs  she  lays  in  a  year,  there  will  be  5^  times  as  much  dry  matter  in 
the  eggs  as  in  her  whole  body.  The  weight  of  the  dry  matter  in  a  cow's  body 
will  be  to  the  weight  of  the  dry  matter  in  the  milk  as  1  to  2.9.  In  other  words, 
based  upon  the  dry  matter,  the  hen  does  twice  as  well  as  the  cow.  I  suspect 
that  the  hen  is  the  most  efficient  transformer  of  raw  material  into  the  finished 
product  that  there  is  on  the  farm.  Her  physiological  activity  is  something 
remarkable,  so  in  that  particular  the  hen  stands  in  a  class  by  herself." 

The  temperature  of  the  bird's  body  is  high,  ranging  from  102°  to 
110°  F.  in  different  species.  The  energy  necessary  to  keep  up  this 
high  temperature  is  great,  and  material  of  the  right  kind  is  in  con- 
stant demand  to  supply  it.  Birds  are  characterized  by  a  heavy  appe- 
tite, which  indicates  intensive  needs;  this  is  accompanied  by  a  very 
rapid  digestion  which  must  be  kept  in  order  and  constantly  supplied 
with  pure  feed.  The  nature  of  birds  of  the  poultry  group  is  to  sub- 
sist largely  on  seeds.  They  are  therefore  classed  as  granivorous 
(seed-eating)  rather  than  as  omnivorous,  yet  in  actual  practice  the 
feeding  of  meat  to  some  extent  is  found  advantageous. 

Composition  of  the  Bird's  Body. — The  great  variety  of  sub- 
stances and  compounds  constituting  the  bird's  body  may  be 
grouped  under  four  general  headings, — water,  ash,  protein,  and 
fat.  Along  with  the  bony  skeleton  are  ligaments,  muscles,  and 
tendons,  which  hold  the  bones  together  and  move  them,  the  skin 
and  feathers  which  cover  and  protect  the  body,  also  all  internal 
organs  of  circulation,  digestion,  respiration,  and  reproduction, — 

169 


170  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

all  these  and  more  may  be  regarded  as  composed  primarily  of  these 
four  substances.  In  the  body  of  the  mature  hen  these  are  found  in 
about  the  following  proportions :  Water,  55.8  per  cent;  ash,  3.8  per 
cent;  protein,  21.6  per  cent;  and  fat,  17  per  cent  (Fig.  113). 

Water. — Usually  more  than  half,  and  in  some  birds  as  much  as 
three-fifths,  of  the  weight  of  the  living  bird  consists  of  water.  This 
water  content  is  greatest  in  young  and  lean  animals,  and  decreases  as 
they  become  more  mature  or  fatten.  This  latter  feature  is  shown  in 
the  capon  or  soft  roasters,  in  which  the  water  is  often  as  low  as  40 
per  cent. 

Ash. — The  ash  content  or  mineral  matter  is  that  portion  of  the 
body  which  is  left  after  the  volatile  and  combustible  elements  are 
driven  off  by  heat.  Ash  is  found  to  a  limited  extent  in  all  parts,  and 
it  is  essential  to  provide  a  sufficient  amount  of  this  material.  The 

Water    55.Q 


Protein  21.6  weight  of  ash  ranges  from  3  to  3.8 

per  cent  of  the  bird's  body. 
I7.O  Protein. — The  term  protein  is 

used  to  designate  a   large  group 


Ash        38  °^  substances  differing  from  other 

M  components  of  the  body  in  that 

they  contain  more  sulphur,  com- 

FIG.   113.— Graphic  representa-       bhied     USUally    with     about    17    per 

tion  of  the  approximate  composi-    cent  of  nitrogen.     Common  exam- 

tion  of  the  bird  s  body.  . 

pies  of  protein  are  the  whites  of 

eggs,  lean  meat  which  has  been  washed  free  from  fat  particles,  the 
casein  in  milk,  and  the  gluten  in  wheat  flour.  Besides  the  elements 
already  named,  protein  contains  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
These  elements  are  known  as  organic  substances,  as  no  mineral  or 
ash  is  left  after  burning  in  air.  Protein  is  the  most  important  group 
of  materials  found  in  the  body,  as  it  forms  the  base  of  all  living 
tissue,  largely  making  up  the  material  called  protoplasm,  which  is 
the  substance  through  which  life  is  manifested.  In  the  body, 
protein  is  always  associated  with  the  ash  and  water  present. 

Fat. — The  fourth  group  of  materials  found  in  the  tissues  of 
all  birds  represents  a  reserve  value,  usually  in  the  form  of  fat. 
When  the  feed  does  not  furnish  the  required  supply  of  nutrients, 
this  reserve  of  surplus  fat  helps  to  counteract  the  deficiency.  The 
fatty  particles  in  the  normal  body  act  as  cushions  between  the 


NUTRIENTS  171 

various,  organs,  arid  also  form  a  protecting  layer  under  the  skin, 
giving  it  a  plump,  full  appearance.  The  proportion  of  fat  in  the 
bird's  body  varies  from  15  to  34  per  cent,  being  lowest  in  the  adult 
bird  which  is  emaciated  from  disease  -or  improper  feeding,  and 
highest  in  birds  which  are  well  fattened. 

Glycogen. — Another  material  called  glycogen,  very  similar  to 
starch,  is  stored  in  relatively  small  amounts  in  the  "organs  of  a 
healthy  animal.  This  substance  resembles  fat  in  that  it  contains 
neither  nitrogen  nor  sulphur,  but  is  composed  entirely  of  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  carbon,  in  the  same  proportion  as  in  starch.  It  may 
be  called  animal  starch. 

Nutrition  is  the  process  by  which  life  is  maintained  and  indi- 
vidual growth  is  promoted.  It  controls  the  wearing  away  and 
the  building  up  of  the  body  tissues,  converts  feed  into  heat  and 
energy,  and  supplies  the  material  for  products  which  are  essential 
to  normal  life.  The  chief  processes  of  nutrition  are  digestion,  ab- 
sorption, circulation,  assimilation,  and  respiration. 

Nutrients. — Materials  in  feeds,  as  seen  in  their  raw  state,  are 
not  transformed  directly  into  living  tissue,  but  they  are  first  broken 
up  into  simple  compounds,  called  nutrients,  which  go  toward  the 
formation  of  the  solids  and  fluids  of  the  body.  Their  classification 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  components  of  the  body  already  consid- 
ered, with  an  added  group  (carbohydrates),  making  five  in  all,— 
namely,  (1)  protein,  (2)  fat,  (3)  carbohydrates,  (4)  mineral  mat- 
ter (or  ash),  and  (5)  water. 

Protein. — The  group  of  nutrients  classed  as  protein  includes  com- 
pounds which  contain  those  elements  that  are  found  in  the  tissues  of 
all  plants  and  animals  used  in  feeds.  The  classes  of  materials  which 
provide  protein  are  always  necessary ,  are  the  most  expensive  to  buy, 
and  are  the  hardest  to  produce  at  home;  hence,  in  purchasing  feed 
stuffs  for  the  various  rations,  the  proportion  of  protein  they  con- 
tain is  usually  the  factor  which  determines  the  price  to  be  paid. 

Fat. — In  the  form  of  oils,  in  seeds,  in  vegetable  products,  and 
in  animal  tissues,  fat  is  familiar  to  all.  Most  feed  stuffs,  especially 
if  from  vegetable  sources,  are  relatively  poor  in  oil  content.  Some 
vegetables,  as  flax  and  cotton,  store  up  oil  instead  of  starch  and 
are  at  the  same  time  rich  in  protein;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  materials 
commonly  available  for  poultry  feeding  though  poor  in  fat  are 
rich  in  carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates. — This  third  class  of  nutrients  includes  the 
starches,  sugars,  and  fibres  which  are  chiefly  valuable  for  producing 


172  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

energy.  In  vegetable  feeding  stuffs  they  constitute  a  distinct  group. 
In  animal  feeding  stuffs  they  are  represented  chiefly  by  the  small 
proportion  of  glycogen  present.  Their  principal  elements  are 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Like  fat,  they  contain  neither 
nitrogen  nor  sulphur,  but  they  differ  from  fat  in  that  they  contain 
less  carbon  and  more  oxygen.  Carbohydrates  can  usually  be  pro- 
duced at  home ;  very  little  should  be  purchased  on  a  well-managed 
poultry  plant,  provided  there  is  land  enough  for  the  growing  of 
the  proper  crops.  As  found  in  feeding  stuffs,  carbohydrates  may 
be  divided  into  two  general  classes: 

(1)  Substances  which  go  to  make  up  the  cells  or  framework  of 
the  plant,  such  as  cellulose  and  fibrous  materials  difficult  to  sepa- 
rate, represented  in  the  analysis  by  the  term  "  crude  fibre." 

(2)  Substances  illustrated  by  starches  and  sugars  found  stored 
up  in  cells  as  reserve  material,  dissolving  readily  in  water  and 
sometimes  represented  in  analysis  tables  by  the  term  "  nitrogen- 
free  extract." 

Ash. — The  mineral  matter  in  feeding  stuffs  which  supplies  the 
incombustible  material  to  the  bird's  body  is  called  ash.  This 
ingredient  is  very  necessary,  especially  in  the  growing  of  young 
animals,  and  can  be  supplied  to  poultry  in  the  form  of  grit,  shell, 
bone,  and  feeds  such  as  bran  and  alfalfa,  which  are  rich  in  ash. 

Uses  of  Nutrients  in  the  Body. — All  the  nutrients  in  the  ration, 
minus  the  water  present,  constitute  what  is  commonly  termed  the 
total  dry  matter.  Each  nutrient  has  a  definite  work  to  do  in 
nourishing  the  body.  In  an  efficient  method  of  feeding  they  must 
all  be  supplied  in  abundance  and  in  the  right  proportion. 

The  most  obvious  use  of  protein  is  the  production  of  tissue,  as  de- 
sired in  growing  chicks  or  young  animals,  the  repairing  and  building 
up  of  the  waste  tissue  in  the  adult,  and  the  supplying  of  material 
which  goes  into  the  formation  of  feathers,  claws,  and  similar  parts. 
The  second  use  is  exemplified  by  the  part  which  protein  takes  in  the 
production  of  the  egg.  In  compounding  the  ration  it  must  be 
remembered  that  protein  is  indispensable  and  that  its  place  cannot 
be  satisfactorily  filled  by  carbohydrates  or  fat.  If,  however,  the 
protein  content  of  the  feed  consumed  is  in  excess  of  that  required 
for  tissue  building  and  egg  production,  it  is  burned  in  the  body 
like  carbohydrates  and  furnishes  material  for  the  formation  of  fat. 

The  uses  of  the  carbohydrates  and  the  fats  of  feeding  stuffs  are 
so  similar  that  they  may  be  considered  together.  Three  uses  are 
given:  (1)  They  are  burned  and  produce  heat,  which  keeps  the 


DIGESTION  AND  ASSIMILATION  173 

bird's  body  warm;  (2)  they  are  burned  and  produce  the  energy 
required  by  the  bird  in  moving;  (3)  if  the  supply  of  either  is  greater 
than  that  required  for  heat  and  energy,  the  excess  gives  rise  to 
the  laying  up  of  fatty  tissues.  The  principal  difference  between 
these  two  formers  of  heat  and  energy  lies  in  the  fact  that  fat  has 
the  greater  energy  value,  being  rated  at  two  and  a  fourth  times 
that  of  carbohydrates. 

Little  care  need  be  taken  to  supply  ash  for  the  uses  of  the  adult 
animal,  because  the  substances  which  furnish  it  are  usually  present 
in  the  ordinary  ration  in  sufficient  amounts;  but  the  growing  birds, 
especially  the  maturing  pullets,  require  a  greater  proportion.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  supply  for  their  use  an  abundance  of  mineral 
matter,  as  it  goes  toward  the  formation  of  the  bony  framework  of 
the  body,  and  a  large,  well-developed  body  is  impossible  without 
an  adequate  frame.  Mineral  matter  can  best  be  supplied  to  the 
young  birds  in  the  form  of  wheat  bran,  which  is  easily  and  quickly 
digested,  or  by  feeding  finely  ground  oyster  shells  and  lime  grit. 
Laying  birds  require  a  ration  well  supplied  with  ash  to  provide 
material  for  the  formation  of  the  shells  of  their  eggs. 

The  three  principal  nutrients,  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat, 
are  the  important  ones  to  consider  when  buying  feeds,  and  it  is 
well  to  determine  the  value  of  the  purchased  material  by  the 
weight  of  digestible  protein  which  it  contains. 

Water  Supply. — The  prime  necessity  of  an  abundant  supply  of 
water  is  too  often  overlooked,  and  the  matter  of  cleanliness  should 
not  be  neglected.  Water  has  four  definite  functions  to  perform 
in  the  bird's  body:  (1)  It  fills  up  and  distends  the  tissues,  giving 
them  a  plump  appearance;  (2)  it  aids  in  digestion  by  dissolving 
particles  of  feed,  so  that  the  digestive  fluids  can  act  on  them  more 
readily;  (3)  it  aids  in  transporting  digested  matter  and  greatly 
hastens  assimilation  by  stimulating  diffusion;  (4)  it  aids  greatly 
in  the  regulation  of  body  temperature.  The  need  of  keeping  a 
supply  of  fresh,  pure  water  constantly  accessible  to  birds  cannot 
be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

Digestion  and  Assimilation. — Much  of  the  feed  of  domestic 
birds  is  in  the  form,  of  seeds,  whole  grains,  and  the  like.  Such 
materials  as  are  hard  and  lumpy,  or  are  encased  in  hard,  fibrous 
husks  which  resist  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices,  cannot  be 
immediately  available  as  nourishment;  they  must  be  ground  and 
crushed  by  the  digestive  organs  before  they  can  be  used  in  the  body. 
The  natural  means  provided  for  this  purpose  are  hereafter  described. 


174  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

Some  of  the  feed  eaten  is  not  digested  and  is  voided  with  the 
droppings.  Only  that  part  which  is  capable  of  digestion  is  of 
value  in  nutrition  and  worthy  of  consideration  by  the  feeder.  The 
undigested  residue  must  be  subtracted  from  the  original  material 
in  computing  nutritive  value.  It  is  only  the  digestible  nutrients 
which  are  available  for  assimilation.  This  fact  is  important  and 
should  be  borne  in  mind  in  selecting  feeds,  as  many  which  are  rich 
in  certain  nutrients  have  a  very  low  digestibility.  The  percentage 
of  a  feed  which  is  digestible  is  called  the  "  digestion  coefficient." 
"For  example,  whole  wheat  grains  contain  11.9  per  cent  of  protein, 
only  80  per  cent  of  which  is  digestible  or  of  assimilative  value;  hence, 
out  of  every  100  pounds  fed,  containing  11.9  pounds  of  protein,  only 
9.5  pounds  are  of  use  to  the  fowl.  Digestion  bears  a  direct  ratio  to 
the  health  of  the  flock;  and  the  stronger  and  healthier  the  birds  are 
the  better  able  they  will  be  to  digest  a  large  amount  of  feed  and  get 
all  of  the  possible  good  out  of  it.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
factors  which  affect  the  value  or  the  digestibility  of  feeds : 

(1)  Young,  tender  shoots  of  grasses  and  forage  plants  are  more 
digestible  than  mature  tissues;  hence,  they  have  a  higher  value 
than  if  allowed  to  become  old  and  woody. 

(2)  Grains  or  by-products  if  exposed  to  rains  or  dampness 
during  the  process  of  curing  or  storing  will  have  a  greatly  reduced 
value  as  compared  to  those  cured  under  favorable  conditions. 

(3)  A  ration  not  properly  balanced  will  tend  to  waste  the 
surplus  nutrients.    (See  Chapter  XII.) 

(4)  The  digestibility  of  feed  for  poultry  is  seldom  increased 
and  often  found  to  be  decreased  by  cooking. 

(5)  The  indigestible  portion  of  feeds  may  serve  in  some  in- 
stances to  give  needed  bulk  to  a  ration,  but  it  often  places  a  heavy 
tax  on  the  energy  of  the  fowl  and  sometimes  offsets  entirely  the 
nutritive  value. 

Aside  from  the  digestibility  of  feed,  the  question  of  its  physical 
effect  on  the  condition  of  the  individual  is  an  important  considera- 
tion. The  point  to  determine  is  whether  the  ration  is  best  suited 
to  the  birds  to  which  it  is  fed.  Feeds  which  in  themselves  are 
valuable  may  cause  disastrous  results  if  improperly  fed  or  if  given 
to  a  wrong  type  of  birds;  for  example,  ground  green  bone  is  highly 
nutritious,  but  if  fed  in'  excess  will  often  upset  the  digestive  system 
and  thus  retard  the  object  sought, — namely,  that  of  increasing  egg 
production.  Hence,  ease  of  digestion  is  as  important  a  factor  as 
total  digestibility.  Milk  is  both  entirely  digestible  and  easily 


FEED  REQUIREMENTS 


175 


digested.  Pork  scraps  are  digested  with  great  difficulty,  yet  their 
digestible  coefficient  is  high.  (For  an  account  of  the  digestive 
organs  see  Chapter  XVII.) 

Objects  of  Feeding.— The  feeding  of  different  types  and  ages 
of  poultry  may  be  grouped  in  accordance  with  their  several  objects 
as  follows:  (1)  Growth,  which  mostly  includes  the  formation  of 
lean  meat  and  other  tissues  incident  to  the  gain  in  weight  exem- 
plified by  the  growing  individual;  (2)  maintenance,  which  includes 
the  repair  of  waste  in  the  body  tissues  resulting  from  the  vital 
processes  while  performing  their  necessary  functions,  but  does  not 
allow  for  any  increase  either  in  weight  or  in  product;  (3)  produc- 
tion, exemplified  in  birds  by  egg  laying,  incident  to  the  important 
function  of  reproduction;  and  (4)  fattening,  which  covers  the 
special  preparation  of  fowls  for  market.  ' 

Feed  Requirements. — Important  experiments  have  been  car- 
ried on  in  America  to  determine  the  feed  requirements  of  domestic 
fowls,  some  reliable  work  having  been  done  by  the  New  York  and 
the  New  Jersey  Stations.  The  results  of  these  investigations  afford 
a  basis  of  various  feeding  standards.  While  no  rules  can  be  laid 
down  for  absolute  observance  under  all  conditions,  their  judicious 
observance  in  a  general  way  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  feeder,  who 
may  vary  the  ration  in  accordance  with  practical  experience.  The 
requirements  for  the  growth  of  chicks  from  hatching  to  maturity, 
for  the  maintenance  of  adult  fowls,  and  for  egg  production  in 
laying  hens  are  shown  in  Table  IV.  (After  Wheeler.) 

TABLE  IV. — Feed  Requirements  of  Chickens  per  Day  for  each  100  Pounds 
of  Live  Weight. 


Birds. 

Digestible  nutrients  (pounds). 

Fuel 
value 
(calories). 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash. 

Total 
dry 

matter. 

10.1 
9.8 
8.6 

7.4 
(i.4 

r>.4 

2.3 
2.7 
3.9 

3.3 
5.4 

Growing  chicks: 

2.00 
2.20 
2.00 
1.60 
1.20 
1.00 

.30 
.40 
.50 

.65 
1.00 

0.40 
.     .50 
.40 
.40 
.30 
.30 

.20 
.20 
.30 

.20 
.35 

7.20 
6.20 
5.60 
4.90 
4.40 
3.70 

1.74 
2.00 
2.95 

2.25 
3.75 

0.50 
.70 
.60 

.50 
..-)() 
.40 

.06 
.10 
.15 

.20 
.30 

18,800 
17.H30 
15,640 

13,780 
11,680 
10,000 

4,600 
5,300 
7.680 

6,240 
10,300 

1  to  4.1 
1  to  3.4 
1  to  3.3 
1  to  3.7 
1  to  4.  3 
1  to  4.4 

1  to  7.5 
1  to  6.2 
1  to  7.4« 

1  to  4.2 
1  to  4.0 

Two  to  four  weeks  

Six  to  eight  weeks  
Eight  to  ten  weeks  
Ten  to  twelve  weeks  
Adults  (maintenance  only): 
Capon,  9  to  12  pounds  
TT      f  5  to  7  pounds.  ......    . 

Hen  13  to  5  pounds  
Egg  production: 
TT       C  5  to  8  pounds  
Hen  I  3  to  5  pounds  

176  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

Growth  and  Maintenance. — Owing  to  the  increase  in  weight 
which  is  taking  place,  the  requirements  of  the  growing  animal  are 
constantly  changing.  Larger  birds  require  more  nutrients  per  day 
per  bird.  Whether  the  object  is  for  growth,  for  maintenance 
simply,  or  for  production,  the  larger  birds  require  more  feed,  but 
much  less  in  proportion  to  live  weight.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  while  the  classification  of  weights  given  in  Table  IV  is  conveni- 
ent, the  grouping  is  only  tentative;  for  example,  it  should  not  be 
presumed  that  a  hen  just  under  five  pounds  in  weight  must  always 
have  a  ration  supplying  nutrients  exactly  as  outlined,  or  one  just 
above  five  pounds  should  have  the  other  ration ;  there  is  a  natural 
blending,  the  point  of  division  being  flexible. 

Under  normal  conditions,  about  three-fourths  as  much  nutri- 
tive material  is  required  in  a  ration  to  maintain  a  flock  of  hens 
without  production  as  to  keep  them  in  full  laying  condition.  Main- 
tenance varies  at  different  seasons  of  the  year;  as,  for  example,  the 
energy  necessary  to  keep  a  hen's  body  at  the  normal  temperature 
of  105°  F.  during  the  winter  requires  more  feed  than  to  maintain 
the  same  temperature  in  summer. 

Egg  Production. — Mature  birds  in  full  laying  condition  require 
rations  which  have  a  much  higher  protein  and  ash  content  than 
those  required  for  maintenance,  the  increase  being  approximately 
100  per  cent.  The  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  not  required  in 
nearly  the  same  increasing  amounts,  yet  the  producing  bird  re- 
quires an  increase  in  energy  or  fuel  value  of  approximately  30 
per  cent  over  that  for  maintenance. 

Fattening. — The  exact  requirements  for  a  fowl  during  the 
period  of  fattening  have  never  been  worked  out.  The  best  results 
in  practice  have  followed  a  slight  reduction  in  protein  content 
and  an  increase  of  about  75  to  100  per  cent  of  carbohydrates 
and  fat  as  compared  to  egg  production  requirements.  During 
the  finishing  process  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1  to  8  can  be 
freely  fed. 

Practicability  of  Feeding  Standards. — One  great  need  in  study- 
ing nutrition  is  reliable  and  actual  scientific  data  pertaining  to  the 
digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  when  fed  to  poultry.  Volumes  of 
carefully  collected  data  pertaining  to  digestion  in  other  farm 
animals  have  been  published,  but  birds  as  a  class  have  received 
very  little  consideration.  Owing  to  this  lack  of  correct  informa- 
tion it  is  necessary  to  use  the  rules  which  are  supposed  to  apply 
to  animals  in  common  in  figuring  poultry  rations.  It  is  probable 


PRACTICABILITY  OF  FEEDING  STANDARDS  177 

that  the  accepted  laws  of  nutrition  observed  with  other  animals 
hold  true  to  only  a  limited  extent  in  regard  to  poultry,  but  they 
form  the  best  guide  until  more  accurate  data  can  be  obtained. 
Birds  have  a  type  of  digestive  system  entirely  different  from  that 
of  any  other  group  of  animals,  are  of  a  much  more  active  disposi- 
tion, and  of  a  much  higher  body  temperature,  so  that  it  is 
only  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  same  coefficients  of  digestion 
and  the  same  energy  values  would  not  in  all  cases  apply.  The 
standards  here  given  are  as  practical  and  reliable  as  are  at  present 
obtainable. 

Digestion  experiments  have  been  carried  on  with  poultry  at 
the  Maine  Station  with  certain  definite  results.  Corn  showed  a 
higher  digestibility  than  any  other  grain  tested.  Wheat  bran  when 
fed  to  adult  birds  showed  a  rather  low  digestibility.  A  mixture 
of  finely  cut  clover  and  corn  meal  was  a  more  economical  feed  than 
bran.  It  was  found  that  any  great  proportion  of  crude  fibre  was 
undesirable,  being  but  slightly  digested  and  of  little  value  other 
than  giving  bulk  to  the  ration;  and  that  the  addition  of  about 
seven  per  cent  of  bone  ash  slightly  increased  the  digestion  coeffi- 
cient of  a  mixture  containing  vegetable  matter. 

Considerable  experimental  work  has  been  done  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  pertaining  to  the  digestibility 
of  poultry  rations.  The  results  of  the  work  show  that  corn  in  the 
ration  is  one  of  the  most  economical  sources  of  crude  protein, 
nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat,  because  corn  is  highly  digestible. 
Oats  and  wheat  should  be  utilized  for  their  crude  protein  and  fat. 
Where  wheat  is  used  extensively,  adequate  provision  must  be 
made  for  the  deficiency  of  fat  in  this  grain.  It  was  found  that 
protein  and  fat  in  beef  show  high  coefficients  of  digestibility,  the 
protein  considerably  higher  and  the  fat  but  slightly  lower  than  the 
corresponding  nutrients  in  corn. 

Until  recently,  all  feeding  determinations  have  been  based  on 
standards  and  coefficients  of  digestibility  derived  from  German 
sources.  When  these  standards  are  used,  the  total  nutrients  in 
the  ration  are  considered,  and  the  requirements  of  the  individual 
animal  determine  the  exact  feed  stuffs  and  the  proportion  in  which 
they  should  be  combined.  It  must  be  remembered  that  no  stand- 
ard, however  derived,  can  be  properly  used  as  the  basis  of  absolute, 
inflexible  rules.  They  can  be  used  as  the  starting  point  for  the 
feeder,  more' especially  the  beginner,  and  are  not  supposed  to 
eliminate  the  use  of  judgment. 
12 


178 


PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 


Relation  of  Feed  to  Character  of  Product. — Table  V  shows  the 
composition  of  various  poultry  feeds  and  of  finished  products. 
Note  the  relatively  high  proportion  of  protein  in  the  egg  and  in 
the  mature  pullet;  also  the  high  fat  content  of  the  capon  and  the 
large  percentage  of  water  present  in  the  egg.  Admitting  the  close 
relationship  which  exists  between  the  composition  of  feed  consumed 
and  the  products  resulting  therefrom,  the  feeder  is  able  to  select 
those  feeds  which  will  be  the  most  productive  of  the  results  desired. 
For  example,  the  richness  of  corn  in  fat  and  carbohydrates  would 
lead  to  the  selection  of  that  grain  as  the  basis  of  a  ration  for  the 
feeding  of  capons.  In  like  manner  meat  scrap  and  green  clover 
would  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  feeding  the  mature  hen  for 
egg  production,  because  of  the  large  percentage  of  protein  in  meat 
and  the  high  water  content  of  clover. 

TABLE  V. — Composition  of  Feeds  and  of  Finished  Poultry  Products. 


Materials  and  products. 

Water. 

Crude 
protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ash. 

Feeds: 
Corn  .  .  . 

10  6 

10  3 

5.0 

726 

15 

Oats  

11.0 

11.8 

5.0 

69.2 

3.0 

Meat  scrap  
Green  clover  
Finished  products: 
Hen  
Pullet  
Capon  
Fresh  egg  

10.7 
70.8 

55.8 
55.5 
41.6 
66.7 

60.2 
4.4 

21.6 
21.2 
19.4 
12.2 

25.0 
1.1 

18.8 
18.9 
35.3 

S.9 

21.6 

4.1 
2.1 

3.8 
3.4 
3.7 
12.2 

Table  V  also  shows  why  a  high  egg  yield  cannot  be  reasonably 
expected  from  birds  that  are  fed  on  an  exclusive  corn  diet,  and 
why  other  feeds  than  corn  are  required  to  bring  tne  pullet  to  ma- 
turity in  good  laying  condition.  The  importance  of  a  properly 
balanced  ration  is  also  manifest,  which  simply  means  that  the 
ration  must  show  a  proper  relation  between  its  nutrient  content 
and  the  compounds  desired  in  the  product.  When  eggs  are  con- 
sidered as  the  manufactured  product,  it  is  plain  that  raw  materials 
of  the  right  kind  and  in  proper  amount  are  essential  to  their  abun- 
dant production. 

A  bird  is  in  reality  a  machine,  which  may  be  compared  to 
an  automobile  whose  engine  must  be  kept  running  at  a  low 
speed  but  which  must  have  reserve  power  available  when  needed. 
The  fuel  required  for  maintaining  the  ordinary  speed  may  be 
likened  to  the  feed  required  for  the  bird's  maintenance.  When 


SPECIAL  FEATURES  179 

it  is  desired  to  get  a  greater  amount  of  energy  from  the  engine, 
additional  fuel  is  supplied  and  its  speed  is  increased.  So  it  is 
with  the  bird.  When  a  certain  product  is  desired,  feed  in  addition 
to  that  required  for  maintenance  must  be  supplied  in  the  proper 
proportion  and  of  the  composition  which  will  best  attain  the 
desired  end. 

Special  Features. — It  has  been  shown  by  careful  experiments 
that  the  observance  of  certain  important  factors  in  poultry  feeding 
leads  to  better  results. 

Need  of  Meat  in  the  Ration. — Under  natural  conditions,  with 
free  range,  birds  will  hunt  for  worms  and  insects  and  thus  largely 
supply  the  meat  requirements  of  their  ration.  When  fowls  are 
kept  in  close  confinement,  it  is  necessary  that  this  meat  require- 
ment be  artificially  supplied.  The  feeding  of  meat  scrap  is  the 
best  form  of  meeting  this  demand.  In  practice  it  is  found  necessary 
to  sterilize  the  scrap  completely  in  order  to  destroy  toxic  properties 
and  increase  the  keeping  qualities.  Approved  brands  are  sterilized 
and  thus  form  excellent  feed,  but  they  must  be  fed  with  caution. 
In  purchasing  meat  scrap  it  is  safest  to  buy  only  that  with  guaran- 
teed analysis  and  from  a  known  and  reliable  firm. 

It  is  safe  to  feed  meat  in  an  egg-producing  ration  at  the  rate 
of  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  total  feed.  The  exact  percentage  varies 
with  the  analysis  of  the  meat  and  the  character  of  the  other  com- 
ponents of  the  ration.  Meat  is  usually  fed  to  the  birds  by  mixing 
it  with  the  dry  mash,  where  they  can  have  constant  access  to  it. 
When  it  is  desirable  to  force  them  for  a  short  time  for  somejpar- 
ticular  purpose,  the  scrap  is  often  fed  in  separate  hoppers.  They 
must  have  meat  in  some  form,  and  in  order  to  do  their  best  the 
quantity  must  be  ample. 

Natural  Feeds  for  Fowls. — If  it  were  necessary  to  limit  birds 
to  only  one  character  or  one  type  of  feed,  they  would  subsist 
longest  and  would  do  best  on  a  ration  entirely  of  grain.  A  large 
part  of  their  feed,  therefore,  should  be  in  the  form  of  whole  or 
cracked  grains.  Many  kinds  of  grain  are  available,  each  with  its 
own  peculiar  composition  and  value,  and  the  feeder  is  thus  allowed 
great  latitude  of  choice  in  compounding  rations. 

Corn  is  probably  the  grain  most  widely  fed;  moreover,  it  is 
greatly  relished  by  all  classes  of  poultry.  Corn  is  very  fattening 
and  birds  eat  it  greedily.  If  laying  fowls  are  fed  too  exclusively 
on  corn,  they  are  likely  to  take  on  too  much  flesh,  the  excess  of 
which  retards  egg  production. 


180  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

Wheat  and  its  by-products  constitute  one  of  the  best  groups 
of  feed  stuffs  for  poultry.  Oats  when  clipped  are  relished  by  birds 
and  make  an  economical  grain  ration.  Barley  is  also  a  good  grain 
to  feed.  Buckwheat  is  rather  fattening  and  usually  expensive,  so 
it  is  best  given  during  the  winter  and  at  the  evening  feeding.  Peas 
are  generally  expensive;  but,  being  rich  in  protein  and  much 
relished  by  the  birds,  they  are  very  desirable  when  their  cost  is 
not  too  great. 

Need  of  Variety  in  the  Ration. — Animals  as  well  as  people  tire 
of  a  steady  diet.  A  variety  in  the  ration  increases  the  palatability, 
and,  by  adding  relish,  enhances  its  digestibility.  Variety  in  the 
ration  allows  the  birds,  if  they  have  a  preference,  to  select  the  grains 
which  they  desire,  and  those  are  usually  the  ones  which  they  most 
need.  Variety  can  be  supplied  both  in  the  grain  ration  and  in  the 
dry  mash.  When  changes  are  made,  they  should  be  gradual, 
allowing  birds  to  become  accustomed  to  them  slowly. 

Necessity  of  Fresh  Water. — It  will  be  remembered  that  more 
than  65  per  cent  of  the  egg  and  55  per  cent  of  the  bird's  body  are 
water  (Table  V);  hence  the  necessity  of  keeping  an  abundant 
supply  before  the  laying  hens  and  the  growing  birds  at  all  times, 
in  addition  to  what  they  secure  from  grains  and  succulent  feeds. 
During  heavy  laying  a  flock  of  100  hens  will  drink  approximately 
10  to  15  quarts  of  water  each  day,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
birds  and  the  season  of  the  year. 

Relation  of  Fat  to  Laying  Condition. — Hens  with  an  excessive 
amount  of  body  fat,  due  to  lack  of  exercise  and  the  use  of  fattening 
feeds,  are  not  in  good  laying  condition,  and  the  egg  yield  will 
invariably  be  retarded.  It  has,  however,  been  proved  by  experi- 
ment that  some  surplus  fat  on  the  body  is  essential.  A  fat  hen 
has  some  surplus  energy,  but  a  lean  hen  requires  all  the  feed  she 
can  digest  to  maintain  and  build  up  body  weight  and  cannot  use 
any  for  production.  The  laying  hen  requires  considerable  fat 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  yolk,  which  contains  about  60  per 
cent  of  fat. 

Value  of  Exercise. — In  order  to  keep  her  body  warm  and  in 
proper  health,  a  hen  should  be  compelled  to  hunt  or  exercise  for 
the  grains  which  she  receives.  It  is  the  usual  habit  of  these  birds, 
even  little  chicks  from  the  time  of  hatching,  to  scratch  in  search 
of  feed.  Exercise  increases  the  circulation  and  enhances  vitality. 
It  is  true  that  exercise  takes  energy,  and  all  energy  must  be  pro- 
duced from  feed;  yet  the  increased  amount  of  feed  is  amply  paid 


SPECIAL  FEATURES  181 

for  in  healthy  birds  and  an  increased  egg  yield.  To  promote 
exercise  it  is  well  to  keep  the  floor  of  the  laying  pen  or  scratching 
shed  covered  to  a  depth  of  four  or  more  inches  with  good  litter, 
and  during  the  winter  throw  therein  at  least  half  of  all  the  feed 
consumed. 

Digestibility  of  Ground  Grams.— Experiments  show  that  a 
greater  efficiency  is  obtained  from  feed  consumed  if  a  part  of  the 
grains  are  fed  in  ground  form  or  as  a  dry  mash.  Experiments 
covering  a  period  of  two  years  show  that  birds  receiving  whole 
grains  give  a  product  valued  at  only  48  per  cent  above  the  cost 
of  feed,  while  those  receiving  part  of  the  ration  in  the  form  of 
ground  grains  showed  an  excess  of  68  per  cent.  The  actual  differ- 
ence in  the  total  value  of  product  was  found  to  be  about  one-third 
greater  with  the  hens  having  ground  grains  in  the  ration.  More 
energy  is  required  in  the  digestion  of  whole  grains  than  ground 
grains.  The  exact  determination  of  whether  or  not  it  will  pay  to 
feed  ground  grains  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  ration.  If 
too  much  time  and  energy  are  required  for  fowls  to  grind  the  feed, 
egg  production  will  be  retarded;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  if  all 
grains  are  fed  ground,  exercise  will  be  restricted  and  the  health  of 
the  birds  impaired  by  reason  of  the  tendency  toward  too  great  a 
concentration.  This  undue  stimulation  to  an  unnatural  egg  yield 
is  likely  to  result  in  lowering  the  bird's  vitality. 

Mineral  Matter  for  Laying  Hens. — The  ash  content  of  different 
feeds  varies  considerably,  and  the  bird's  requirements  also  vary 
during  the  different  periods  of  its  life.  The  problem  is  to  adjust 
properly  these  varying  factors  to  each  other.  During  the  growing 
stage  and  during  egg  production,  more  ash  is  required  than  is 
supplied  by  the  ash  content  in  vegetable  feeding  stuffs.  Wheat 
bran  is  very  rich  in  digestible  ash,  and  is  easily  adapted  to  the 
feeding  of  baby  chicks,  but  it  does  not  supply  enough  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  laying  hens.  The  lack  of  ash  in  the  ration 
of  laying  birds  tends  to  induce  egg  eating,  because  soft-shelled 
eggs  are  then  likely  to  be  produced.  This  condition  can  be  pre- 
vented by  keeping  crushed  oyster  shell,  ground  bone,  and  similar 
material  constantly  before  the  hens.  The  shell  constitutes  8  per 
cent  of  the  whole  egg,  and  to  lay  160  eggs  in  a  year  the  hen  will 
require  1.6  pounds  of  mineral  matter  for  the  shells  alone. 

Use  of  Sharp  Grit.— Birds  have  no  teeth  with  which  to  grind 
feed,  this  mastication  being  performed  in  the  gizzard  by  muscular 
action.  In  order  that  this  work  may  be  properly  done,  sharp  grit 


182  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

must  be  present  to  aid  in  crushing  and  wearing  the  feed  into  fine 
particles.  The  harder  and  sharper  the  grit  the  better,  and  it 
should  be  kept  always  before  the  birds.  Digestion  does  not  take 
place  until  the  feed  is  ground  in  the  gizzard,  and  when  new, 
sharp  grit  is  not  present  the  feed  must  remain  unground  in  the 
gizzard  until  it  becomes  soft  and  falls  to  pieces;  this  process  is 
slow  and  results  in  imperfect  digestion. 

Stimulating  Feeds. — The  use  of  condimental  or  stimulating 
feeds,  such  as  the  so-called  "  stock  feeds,"  "  poultry  panaceas," 
and  "  egg  feeds,"  should  not  be  permitted  except  when  birds  seem 
to  be  lacking  in  appetite  and  it  is  desired  to  increase  the  palata- 
bility  of  their  ration ;  and  such  use  should  be  stopped  as  soon  as  the 
birds  recover.  It  is  a  very  bad  practice  to  feed  forcing  and  con- 
dition powders  to  strong,  healthy  birds.  The  habitual  use  of  such 
stimulants  in  the  ration  causes  the  individual  to  become  immune 
to  the  good  effect  which  they  may  at  first  seem  to  have  on  the 
system.  Their  action  on  a  healthy  bird  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
alcohol  on  the  human  system ;  for  a  short  time  there  is  an  excessive 
stimulation,  but  the  after  effects  are  depressing  because  of  the 
tendency  to  break  down  or  unnecessarily  wear  out  the  tissue.  The 
use  of  these  stimulating  substances  should  be  discouraged.  Their 
actual  value  as  nourishment  is  usually  only  a  small  fraction  of 
their  cost,  and  their  value  for  promoting  palatability  is  not  equal 
to  that  of  common  salt,  which  may  be  safely  added  occasionally 
for  this  purpose  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  ounce  of  salt  to 
twenty-five  pounds  of  dry  feed. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Compare  poultry  with  other  farm  animals. 

2.  Compare  a  hen  with  a  cow  as  a  transformer  of  raw  materials. 

3.  What  is  the  temperature  of  a  fowl's  body,  and  how  does  it  affect  the  feed 

requirements? 

4.  Give  the  composition  of  a  fowl's  body. 

5.  Discuss  the  following  components  in  detail:    (a)  Water,  (b)  ash,  (c)  pro- 

tein, (d)  fat. 

6.  Define  nutrition;  nutrient. 

7.  Name  three  important  nutrients  and  give  their  general  composition. 

8.  Give  the  uses  of  the  following  nutrients  in  the  body:    (a)  Protein,  (b)  car- 

bohydrates, and  (c)  fat. 

9.  Discuss  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs. 

10.  Name  and  discuss  the  three  objects  of  feeding. 

11.  Compare  maintenance  requirements  of  the  capon  and  the  hen. 

12.  Discuss  requirements  for  growth. 


REVIEW  183 

13.  Discuss  feed  requirements  for  fattening. 

14.  Compare  production  requirements  of  large  and  small  hens. 

15.  What  are  the  possible  uses  of  feeding  standards? 

16.  Discuss  the  relation  of  feed  to  product. 

17.  Enumerate  ten  factors  which  must  be  considered  in  studying  the  principles 

of  poultry  feeding. 

18.  How  and  when  may  stimulating  feed  be  used? 

References. — Feeding  of  Laying  Hens,  by  James  E.  Rice,  Cornell  Reading 
Course  Bulletin  17.  Digestive  Experiments  with  Poultry,  by  J.  M.  Bartlett, 
Maine  Bulletin  184.  Principles  and  Practices  of  Poultry  Feeding,  by  H.  R. 
Lewis,  Bulletin  New  Jersey  Board  of  Agriculture.  Digestion  Experiments 
with  Poultry,  by  E.  W.  Brown,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin  156. 
Feeding  of  Laying  Hens,  by  A.  C.  Phillips,  Kansas  Bulletin  164.  The  Economy 
of  using  Animal  Feed  in  Poultry  Feeding,  by  W.  P.  Wheeler,  New  York  Bulle- 
tin 149.  The  Adaptability  of  Concentrated  By-products  for  Poultry  Feeding, 
by  W.  P.  Wheeler,  New  York  Bulletin  27.  Experiments  with  Whole  versus 
Ground  Grains,  by  W.  P.  Wheeler,  New  York  Bulletin  106.  Poultry  Feeding 
Experiments,  by  Horace  Atwood,  West  Virginia  Bulletin  88.  Mineral  Ele- 
ments hi  Animal  Nutrition,  by  E.  B.  Forbes,  Ohio  Bulletin  201. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
POULTRY  FEEDS. 

THE  previous  chapter  has  dealt  with  the  requirements  of  the 
individual  and  the  principles  of  nutrition.  It  was  shown  that  the 
requirements  of  birds  for  different  purposes  are  constantly  chang- 
ing, and  that  special  factors  are  to  be  considered  in  selecting  suit- 
able feeds  for  the  various  purposes.  It  is  the  plan  of  this  chapter 
to  take  up  the  various  materials  which  are  available  and  practical 
for  poultry  feeding,  their  classification,  and  the  way  in  which  they 
can  be  most  economically  used.  The  analyses  given  are  taken  from 
reports  of  experiment  stations  and  represent  many  hundreds  of 
samples  in  each  case.  Only  whole  grains  and  their  common  by- 
products are  considered.  There  are  a  multitude  of  manufactured 
poultry  feeds  and  ready-mixed  rations  sold  under  special  brand 
names.  To  learn  the  composition  and  desirability  of  such  special 
rations,  poultry  men  should  refer  to  feed  analysis — bulletins  pub- 
lished in  each  State  in  which  they  are  sold. 

Sources  of  Nutrients. — All  materials  fed  to  poultry  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes, — organic  and  inorganic.  The  inorganic 
or  mineral  feeds  are  water,  salt,  lime,  and  phosphate.  These 
natural  substances  are  found  only  in  limited  quantities  in  vegetable 
feeds,  such  as  grains. 

Water. — As  has  been  stated,  water  is  essential  in  the  ration  to 
maintain  right  conditions  in  the  bird's  body  and  to  supply  the 
amount  required  for  the  manufacture  of  eggs,  as  one  dozen  eggs 
contain  approximately  one  pint  of  water.  Water  is  supplied  to 
the  birds  in  the  following  ways:  (1)  Fresh  water  to  drink,  and 
(2)  succulent  feeds  to  eat,  such  as  green  grass,  sprouted  oats,  beets, 
cabbage,  and  other  vegetables. 

Salt. — Salt  is  supplied  to  increase  palatability  and  to  aid  diges- 
tion by  diffusion.  It  should  be  supplied  when  necessary  in  the 
ration  to  the  extent  of  not  over  four  ounces  to  every  one  hundred 
pounds  of  dry  feed. 

Lime. — The  shell  of  the  fresh  egg  is  composed  almost  entirely 
of  lime.  Compounds  of  lime  are  used  in  building  bone  and  are 
found  to  a  limited  extent  in  other  body  tissues.  Grains  are 
rather  deficient  in  lime,  and  it  is  necessary  to  supply  other  lime 
if  birds  are  kept  in  close  confinement.  The  practical  sources 
184 


CORN  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 


185 


usually  available  are  oyster  shells,  limestone  grit,  and  dry  ground 
bone.    Their  composition  is  shown  in  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI.— Composition  of  Sources  of  Lime  (pounds  in  100). 


Sources  of  lime. 

Protein. 

Lime  (CaO). 

Equivalent 
to  carbonate 
of  lime. 

Phosphoric 
acid  (P2O5). 

Crushed  oyster  shells.  . 
Limestone  grit  
Dry  ground  bone  

26 

53 

18 
27 

95 
32 

49 

0.08 
.10 

24.18 

Phosphate. — Less  than  four  per  cent  of  the  body  of  the  adult 
bird  is  mineral  matter,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  phosphate 
of  lime,  and  the  use  of  phosphate  has  been  found  to  be  especially 
profitable  and  practical  in  rations  for  growing  chicks.  Bone  ash  is 
supplied  in  the  form  of  granulated  bone,  bone  meal,  or  cut  bone. 

Organic  Feeds. — The  feeds  grouped  under  this  heading  are: 
.(1)  Grains  and  their  by-products,  which  are  termed  concentrated 
feeds,  and  (2)  grasses,  hay,  and  straw,  which  are  called  roughage. 
Concentrates  take  their  name  from  the  fact  that  high  nutrient 
content  is  represented  in  small  bulk;  and  roughage  from  the  fact 
that  a  larger  amount  of  fibre  or  cellulose  is  present,  and  a  larger 
bulk  represents  only  a  small  nutrient  content. 

The  leading  grains  must  be  relied  upon  mainly  for  poultry. 
The  different  organic  feeds  naturally  group  themselves  into  the 
following  divisions:  Grains  and  their  by-products,  animal  feeds, 
hays,  grasses,  and  vegetables.  As  the  by-products  are  closely 
associated  with  the  grains  from  which  they  are  derived,  these  two 
groups  will  be  discussed  together. 

Corn  and  its  by-products  are  the  principal  sources  of  feed  for 
poultry,  the  great  value  of  this  grain  lying  in  its  available  energy, 
due  to  its  high  percentage  of  easily  digested  carbohydrates  and 
fat  and  the  absence  of  all  poisonous  substances. 

When  birds  have  access  to  a  variety  of  grains,  they  usually 
select  the  corn  first,  showing  that  it  is  extremely  palatable.  There 
is  very  little  difference  in  analysis  between  yellow  and  white  corn. 
The  yellow  corn,  however,  is  preferred  where  it  can  be  secured, 
as  it  has  a  tendency  to  impart  its  color  to  the  flesh  of  the  birds 
feeding  on  it,  and  also  colors  the  egg  yolk*  a  deeper  yellow.  It  is 
a  better  practice  to  feed  cracked  rather  than  whole  corn,  as  it 
necessitates  more  exercise  to  secure  a  sufficient  amount  for  one 
meal.  The  composition  of  the  two  is  the  same,  except  that  in 


186  POULTRY  FEEDS 

sifted  cracked  corn  the  protein  content  is  slightly  lower,  due  to  the 
loss  of  germ  meal.  Corn  is  very  easily  digested  and  assimilated. 
The  facts  that  corn  is  easily  digested  and  is  a  rapid  fat  former 
make  it  a  very  undesirable  feed  for  mature  birds  in  close  confine- 
ment if  egg-laying  is  desired.  A  great  many  of  the  farm  flocks 
throughout  the  country  are  maintained  almost  entirely  upon  an 
exclusive  corn  diet,  which  results  in  a  very  small  and  usually  an 
unprofitable  egg  yield.  Corn  does  not  contain  the  nutrients  in 
the  proportion  in  which  they  are  required  in  the  manufacture  of 
eggs,  and  therefore  it  should  be  used  in  connection  with  other 
grains,  its  particular  function  being  to  supply  heat  and  energy. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  feeding  whole  or  cracked  corn  to  avoid 
the  use  of  moldy  feed.  New  corn  which  has  not  been  properly 
dried  may  mold  and  heat;  in  this  condition  it  is  a  very  unsafe  feed. 

Corn  meal  is  used  both  in  dry  and  in  wet  mashes.  Coarse  corn 
meal  is  usually  preferred  as  the  basis  of  this  feed,  as  it  is  more 
bulky.  As  much  inferior  corn  is  ground  up  and  sold  as  corn  meal, 
it  is  safer  to  have  meal  prepared  from  home-grown  grain.  Care 
must  be  exercised  for  a  few  days  after  grinding  to  avoid  heating. 
This  can  be  done  by  spreading  the  sacks  out  on  a  dry  floor  and 
turning  them  a  few  times  for  the  first  few  days. 

In  some  instances  corn-and-cob  meal  is  profitable,  but  its  use 
as  a  poultry  feed  is  of  doubtful  value,  owing  to  the  large  amount 
of  fibre  in  the  cob,  which  contains  very  little  nourishment.  It  has 
a  low  digestibility.  It  is  better  practice  to  omit  the  cob  from  the 
corn  meal,  and  increase  its  bulk  by  the  addition  of  wheat  bran, 
short-cut  alfalfa,  or  ground  oats. 

Gluten  meal  is  a  by-product  of  corn  carrying  a  high  percentage 
of  protein.  It  is  separated  from  corn  by  mechanical  processes  in 
the  manufacture  of  glucose  and  starch.  Its  composition  is  very 
uniform,  and  it  furnishes  a  very  good  source  of  vegetable  protein 
in  the  poultry  ration.  The  one  objection  to  feeding  gluten  meal 
is  the  fact  that  some  mature  birds  not  accustomed  to  this  feed  will 
often  refuse  to  eat  it.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  gluten  meal  in  the 
rations,  it  should  be  given  the  birds  when  they  are  quite  young. 

Gluten  feed  is  a  term  used  for  defining  prepared  rations  or  feed 
mixtures  containing  a  certain  percentage  of  gluten  meal  combined 
with  other  less  expensive,  bulky  products.  It  is  generally  a  poor 
practice  to  purchase  the  so-called  gluten  feeds  without  a  guaranteed 
analysis.  Even  in  such  cases  the  true  gluten  meal  is  to  be  preferred, 
as  it  has  a  known  digestibility. 


WHEAT  187 

Hominy  meal  is  a  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  hominy 
grits.  In  some  localities  it  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  corn  meal. 
Owing  to  its  being  a  by-product,  it  can  often  be  secured  at  lower 
prices  than  corn.  Its  feeding  value  is  about  the  same  as  corn  meal. 

Germ-oil  meal  is  a  by-product  of  the  starch  industry.  Although 
rather  limited  in  supply  for  feeding  purposes,  it  is  fairly  high  in 
protein  and  contains  over  ten  per  cent  of  fat.  It  is  used  in  some 
localities  in  wet  mashes  for  the  finishing  and  fattening  of  poultry 
for  market. 

Wheat.— Birds  are  fond  of  wheat,  whether  fed  whole  or  ground. 
Feeding  experiments  show  quite  clearly  that  the  feeding  value  of 
wheat  for  poultry  is  slightly  greater  than  that  of  corn,  pound  for 
pound.  Wheat  is  a  more  perfectly  balanced  ration  for  poultry 
feeding  than  any  other  single  kind  of  grain.  There  are  a  great 
many  grades  of  wheat  offered  for  this  purpose,  the  variations  being 
in  purity,  soundness,  color,  plumpness,  and  hardness.  In  selecting 
wheat  for  feeding  purposes,  if  a  choice  is  possible,  the  samples 
which  are  pure,  hard,  and  dark  in  color  are  usually  the  richest  in 
protein,  and  hence  more  valuable.  The  whole  wheat  kernel  can 
be  fed  to  poultry  exclusively  for  a  longer  period  of  time  than  any 
other  grain,  with  no  apparent  detrimental  effect.  The  price  of 
wheat  fluctuates  considerably,  and  very  often  inexperienced  feeders 
use  a  greater  percentage  of  corn,  owing  to  the  increased  price  of 
wheat,  believing  that  they  get  more  value  for  the  money  spent. 
Such,  however,  is  usually  not  the  case. 

Wheat  Bran  and  Middlings. — In  the  process  of  manufacturing 
flour,  the  layers  of  wheat  kernels  are  split  up  into  different  com- 
ponents or  grades.  These  are  known  as  bran,  middlings  or  shorts, 
and  flour.  Shorts  are  essentially  the  same  as  middlings,  ex- 
cept that  a  larger  amount  of  fine  bran  may  be  present.  Bran 
consists  of  the  outer  coatings  of  wheat  kernels  left  in  large  flakes 
with  portions  of  the  inner  layer  of  protein-bearing  cells.  The 
product  is  light,  bulky,  and  fibrous.  Middlings  contain  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  inner  layers,  including  some  flour,  and  have  less 
of  the  outer  coats  and  are  more  starchy  than  bran  (Fig.  114). 
Wheat  bran,  mixed  with  corn  meal,  usually  forms  the  basis  of 
most  poultry  mashes.  Wheat  bran  contains  a  relatively  high  per- 
centage of  nutrients,  but  its  digestibility  is  rather  low,— not  much 
greater  than  that  of  a  good  grade  of  legume  hay.  Middlings  may 
well  form  a  part  of  a  dry-mash  mixture,  but  are  rather  too  sticky 
for  the  wet  mash.  Coarser  products  should  go  with  them  in  all  cases. 


188  POULTRY  FEEDS 

Wheat  screenings  consist  of  shrunken  wheat,  broken  or  crushed 
wheat,  and  some  weed  seeds  screened  from  wheat  before  the  milling 
process  begins.  When  this  material  is  not  composed  largely  of 
foreign  matter,  such  as  weed  seeds,  hulls,  and  dirt,  it  may  be  a 
very  desirable  feed.  It  can  often  be  secured  for  15  to  20  cents 
per  bushel  less  than  the  price  of  good  wheat.  Its  use  should  be 
rather  limited,  however,  owing  to  the  great  variation  in  quality 
which  is  found. 

Bread  is  a  valuable  article  in  the  poultry  ration.  It  contains 
considerable  digestible  material  and  can  usually  be  secured  rela- 

Ou£*r 

,  protein,  cells 

Starch 
cells 


FIG.  114. — Cross  section  of  wheat  kernel  (greatly  enlarged). 

tively  cheap.  Restaurants,  hotels,  bakeshops,  and  stores  often 
have  stale  bread  to  dispose  of. 

Oats. — Whole  oats  are  nearly  equal  to  whole  wheat  in  feeding 
value.  Owing  to  the  large  percentage  of  hulls,  they  are  not  relished 
so  well,  but  will  be  freely  eaten  by  the  birds- when  they  become 
accustomed  to  them.  In  feeding  oats  those  of  best  quality  and 
large  kernels  should  be  selected,  as  very  inferior  oats  are  on  the 
market.  It  is  a  profitable  practice  to  use  clipped  oats,  the  birds 
eating  them  much  better,  as  they  have  a  much  less  percentage  of 
fibrous  material.  Ground  oats  are  extensively  used  in  poultry 
mashes,  both  wet  and  dry. 

Oat  meal  has  for  a  great  many  years  been  considered  a  very 
good  poultry  feed.  The  price  is  high,  but  a  slightly  inferior  grade 
can  usually  be  purchased  relatively  cheap  in  bulk.  Oat  meal  is 
very  digestible  and  a  good  feed  for  baby  chicks,  supplying  nutrients 


OATS 


189 


in  small  bulk  and  in  a  form  that  the  birds  can  readily  see.  It 
is  used  extensively  in  fattening  poultry  for  market,  and  is  suitable 
for  use  in  wet  mashes  during  the  finishing  periods.  Rolled  or 
crushed  oats  with  hulls  may  take  its  place;  but  if  hulls  are  present, 
the  advantage  is  entirely  with 
the  purer  oat  meal. 

Sprouted  Oats.— The  feed- 
ing of  sprouted  oats  when  they 
are  from  four  to  six  inches  high 
is  a  very  economical  method 
of  supplying  green  feed  to  all 
classes  of  poultry.  The  cost 
is  slight,  the  time  required  for 
growth  short,  and  the  amount 
of  succulent  material  is  very 
large.  The  following  method 
is  generally  followed  in  the 
sprouting  of  grain,  the  idea 
being  to  incorporate  as  much 
water  into  them  as  possible 
during  the  sprouting  period. 

Manner  of  Sprouting.— 
Only  the  best  grade  of  plump, 
heavyfeed  oats  should  be  used, 
and  handled  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  will  reach  maximum 
growth  quickly.  Six  quarts  of 
clean  oats  are  placed  in  a  ten- 
quart  galvanized  pail,  which  is 
then  filled  with  water  at  a 
temperature  of  not  over  100° 
F.,  to  which  are  added  ten 
drops  of  formalin  to  prevent 

mold.  The  oats  are  allowed  to  soak  in  this  in  a  warm  room  for 
forty-eight  hours,  during  which  time  they  will  swell  and  fill  the  pail, 
having  absorbed  all  the  water.  Next  they  are  poured  on  a  flat  box 
or  tray  of  the  sprouting  rack  to  a  thickness  of  one  inch.  The  sprout- 
ing rack  used  can  be  home  made.  It  is  built  seven  feet  high  and 
two  feet  square,  equipped  with  seven  trays,  one  for  each  day  in  the 
week,  each  tray  being  about  two  feet  square.  Figure  115  shows  such 


FIG.  115. — Rack  for  sprouting  oats;  large 
enough  to  provide  five  hundred  laying  hens 
with  a  continuous  supply  of  succulent  food. 


190 


POULTRY  FEEDS 


a  rack.  The  rack  is  kept  in  a  room  where  the  temperature  is 
not  less  than  60°  F.,  and  the  sprouting  oats  are  thoroughly 
sprinkled  with  water  twice  daily.  In  from  seven  to  ten  days, 
depending  on  the  temperature  of  the  room,  the  sprouts  reach 
their  best  development,  which  is  from  four  to  six  inches.  After 
this,  if  they  are  not  fed  quickly,  they  go  backward,  owing  to 
lack  of  nourishment  in  the  seed.  It  is  found  that  on  the  seventh 
day,  with  a  temperature  of  75°  F.,  the  oats  are  in  the  best  condi- 
tion to  feed,  having  taken  up  during  the  soaking  and  sprouting 
period  three  and  two-thirds  their  original  weight  of  water.  Figure 
116  shows  the  oats  on  the  seventh  day  ready  to  feed.  The  best 

way  to  feed  them  is  in 
broad,  flat,  open  troughs, 
placing  as  much  of  the 
green  material  in  the 
trough  at  one  time  as 
the  birds  will  clean  up 
immediately,  leaving 
none  to  be  scratched  out 
and  wasted.  Under  aver- 
age flock  conditions  one 
square  inch  of  feeding 
surface  per  bird  per  day 
is  sufficient  to  satisfy 
their  appetites  and  sup- 
ply the  succulence  nec- 
essary, without  causing 
diarrhoea.  The  sprouting 
oats  are  very  palatable,  being  relished  by  every  bird  in  the  flock. 
It  has  been  tried  in  some  cases  with  sick  birds  which  would  not  eat 
grain,  and  in  nearly  every  instance  was  eaten  greedily. 

Advantage  of  Sprouted  Oats. — (1)  Sprouting  of  oats  for  feeding 
is  a  simple  process,  requiring  little  time  and  attention,  and  in 
every  case  results  are  certain.  A  sprouting  rack  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  figure  115  is  capable  of  supplying  a  continuous  quan- 
tity of  green  feed  for  over  500  laying  hens  during  the  winter  months. 
(2)  Oats  so  prepared  and  fed  to  laying  birds  are  very  palatable 
and  satisfying,  much  more  so  than  when  fed  as  whole  grain.  (3) 
This  is  the  most  economical  method  of  feeding  oats,  366  pounds 
of  succulent  feed  being  obtained  from  every  one  hundred  pounds 
of  dry  oats.  In  every  case  where  sprouted  oats  were  fed  to  birds 


FIG.  116. — A  tray  of  sprouted  oats  ready  for  feeding. 
Each  bird  receives  one  square  inch  per  day. 


RYE  191 

an  increased  production  was  noted.  (4)  Sprouted  oats  are  a  very 
efficient  source  of  feed  compared  with  other  succulent  feed  which 
could  be  stored. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  fresh  sprouted  oats  contain  about  the 
following:  Water  75.9;  ash  0.8;  protein  3.2;  fibre  2.5;  other  car- 
bohydrates 16.3;  fat  1.3. 

This  shows  a  total  dry  matter  of  24.1  pounds  as  compared  with 
20  in  potatoes,  12  in  beets,  and  only  10  in  cabbage. 

The  analysis  shows  a  protein  content  of  3.2  pounds  as  compared 
with  2.1  in  potatoes,  1.3  in  beets,  and  2.4  in  cabbage. 

Buckwheat  is  highly  prized  as  a  poultry  feed  in  some  sections 
where  the  price  is  not  prohibitive,  and  especially  in  sections  where 
white  meat  is  desired.  It  is  usually  fed  mixed  with  other  grains, 
its  principal  properties  being  to  supply  heat  and  energy.  Owing 
to  its  extremely  large  size  and  angular  fibrous  hull,  birds,  as  a  rule, 
do  not  relish  it  in  large  quantities.  When  ground  and  separated 
in  making  buckwheat  flour,  two  by-products  are  found, — bran  and 
middlings.  The  middlings  are  prized  for  their  high  percentage  of 
protein  and  fat.  Buckwheat  bran,  being  composed  chiefly  of  hulls, 
is  of  little  value  in  poultry  feeding,  even  when  ground  exceedingly 
fine.  Buckwheat  feeds  are  used  in  Europe,  where  poultry  with 
pink  flesh  is  preferred  over  yellow.  In  most  sections  of  the  United 
States  the  yellow-fleshed,  corn-fed  birds  command  a  premium. 

Barley  is  a  suitable  feed  for  nearly  all  classes  of  poultry  and 
is  a  good  substitute  for  corn.  It  is  nearly  equal  in  feeding  value, 
and  in  Europe  it  largely  takes  the  place  filled  by  corn  in  America. 
It  is  usually  fed  whole  with  other  grains  as  a  scratching  ration. 
Barley  grains  are  coming  into  increased  favor  in  barley-growing 
communities.  They  are  usually  relished  by  the  birds,  next  to  corn 
and  wheat.  Barley  screenings  are  similar  to  wheat  screenings, 
and  are  generally  of  a  very  good  quality  and  desirable  as  a  feed, 
but,  owing  to  the  possibility  of  adulterants,  their  analysis  should 
be  determined  before  extensive  use  is  made  of  them.  Malt  sprouts 
and  brewer's  grains  are  by-products  of  barley.  They  have  not 
been  used  extensively  for  poultry  feeding.  Theoretically  malt 
sprouts  may  be  a  good  source  of  succulent  material,  but,  owing  to 
the  demand  for  this  product  as  dairy  feed,  it  has  not  been  exten- 
sively tried  by  poultrymen. 

Rye.— Whole  rye  resembles  very  closely  the  wheat  kernel,  both 
in  analysis  and  general  appearance;  but  the  birds  do  not  eat  it 
readily  and  it  does  not  produce  good  results.  Persons  raising  rye 


192  POULTRY  FEEDS 

extensively  will  find  it  more  profitable  to  market  this  material 
and  purchase  other  feeds  for  poultry  purposes.  Sprouted  rye  is 
very  palatable,  and  birds  do  well  on  it.  The  main  by-products 
of  rye  are  rye  bran  and  distiller's  grains,  but,  owing  to  limited 
supply,  they  are  very  seldom  used. 

Rice. — Whole  or  crushed  rice  is  used  to  some  extent,  the  crushed 
product  being  used  in  the  feeding  of  chicks  and  pigeons.  Usually 
the  grades  of  rice  which  become  available  for  poultry  feeding  are 
in  limited  amounts  and  the  supply  is  uncertain,  so  that  they  can- 
not be  considered  as  a  constantly  available  poultry  feed. 

Flax  seed  and  cotton  seed  do  not  enter  into  any  class  of  poul- 
try feeds  except  through  their  by-products, — viz.,  linseed  meal  and 
cottonseed  meal.  The  former  consists  of  ground  flax  seed  from 
which  the  oil  has  been  extracted.  In  the  "  old  process  "  the  oil 
is  extracted  by  pressure  only;  in  the  "  new  process  "  a  much 
greater  percentage  of  the  oil  is  removed  by  pressure  and  the  use 
of  gasoline  or  other  solvents.  The  old  process  meal  is  more  de- 
sirable for  feeding  purposes,  especially  during  the  molting  season, 
as  it  hastens  the  growth  of  the  new  feathers.  These  meals  when 
used  are  usually  mixed  with  the  dry  mash.  Cottonseed  meal  is 
not  so  generally  used  for  poultry  feeding,  as  it  is  supposed  to  have 
certain  toxic  or  poisonous  properties  which  may  prove  detrimental 
to  the  best  results,  and  when  used  is  fed  in  small  quantities. 

Sorghum  seed,  when  it  can  be  obtained,  makes  a  very  satis- 
factory variation  in  the  compounding  of  grain  rations.  It  is  very 
similar  to  corn  in  composition,  the  kernel  itself  being  much  smaller 
than  wheat  and  very  smooth. 

Broom  corn,  kafir,  and  milo  maize,  when  obtainable  at  reason- 
able prices,  may  be  used  with  beneficial  results.  Their  production, 
however,  is  very  limited  both  in  area  and  distribution.  With  the 
large  number  of  grains  more  extensively  produced  it  is  doubtful 
if  the  above  will  ever  assume  a  prominent  role  in  grain  rations 
for  poultry,  except  in  the  dryer  parts  of  the  country. 

Millet  seed  is  relished  by  poultry.  Its  high  cost  prohibits  the 
general  use  of  it  in  rations  for  adult  birds.  Its  high  fibre  con- 
tent makes  it  undesirable  for  chicks. 

Sunflower  seed  is  very  desirable  for  poultry  during  the  molt- 
ing season.  It  is  rich  in  vegetable  oil  and  aids  greatly  in  the 
formation  of  new  feathers,  giving  the  feathers  a  clean,  glossy 
appearance,  which  cannot  be  obtained  without  such  oil. 

Peas  and  Beans. — These  legumes  are  grown  in  limited  amounts 
and  cannot  be  considered  as  standard  poultry  feeds,  but,  where 


ORGANIC  FEEDS 


193 


available,  either  in  the  green  or  dried  condition,  they  may  be 
profitably  used,  as  they  are  very  rich  in  protein  and  easily  digested. 

TABLE  VII.— Composition  of  Grams  and  their  By-products. 

-JT-italJngredients  are  given-  regardless  of  their  digestibility.) 


Feed. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein 

Fibre. 

Carbo- 
1  hydrates. 

Corn  group. 
Dent  corn  

Per  cent 
10  6 

Per  cent 
1   e; 

Per  cent 

in  Q 

Per  cent 

Per  cent. 

Flint  corn  

11  3 

1  4 

in  5 

.2 

70.4 

Sweet  corn  

8  8 

1  Q 

Ha 

.7 

70.1 

Pop  corn  

10  7 

1     C 

n£» 

2.8 

66.8 

Corn  meal  

120 

1    Q 

o  7 

1.0 

21 

69.2 

Corn  meal  (sifted)  
Corn-and-cob  meal  
Gluten  meal  

12.0 
15.1 

82 

1.0 
1.5 
Q 

8.9 

8.5 

on  q 

.1 
1.3 
6.6 

0    0 

.2 
72.0 
64.8 

Gluten  feed  

8  5 

1  7 

»A  9 

O.O 
79 

46.5 

Hominy  meal  

11  0 

2  *> 

in  4 

49 

Oo.o 
A/1    1 

Wheat  group. 
Whole  wheat  

105 

1  8 

11  Q 

1  S 

D4.1 
no 

Wheat  screenings  
Wheat  bran  
Wheat  middlings. 

11.6 
11.9 
12.1 

2.9 
5.8 
33 

12.5 
15.4 
156 

4.9 
9.0 
4  « 

.y 
65.1 
53.9 
fin  4 

Low-grade  flour. 
Old  bread  
Oat  group. 
Oats,  whole  or  ground 
Clipped  oats  
Oat  meal.  .  .  . 

12.4 
31.2 

11.0 
11.2 

7  9 

.6 
Variable 

3.0 
2.8 
20 

10.0 
6.9 

11.8 
12.0 

M7 

.9 
Variable 

9.5 

7.4 

75.0 
44.2 

60.7 
61.6 

K7  A. 

Rolled  oats. 

8  5 

1  9 

1  ^  0 

ac\  n 

Buckwheat  group. 
Buckwheat  
Buckwheat  bran  
Buckwheat  middlings.  .  .  . 
Barley  group. 
Barley  

12.6 
10.5 
13.2 

109 

2.0 
3.1 
4.9 

2  4 

10.0 
12.4 
28.9 

124 

8.7 
31.9 
4.1 

2  7 

64.5 

38.8    i 
41.9 

6Q  8 

Barley  meal  
Barley  screenings 

11.9 
124 

2.6 
36 

10.5 
12  2 

6.5 

7  6 

66.3 
61  6 

Malt  sprouts.  . 

10.2 

5.7 

23.2 

107 

485 

Other  grains. 
Linseed  meal  (o.  p.) 

9.2 

5  7 

329 

89 

35  4 

Cottonseed  
Cottonseed  meal..  . 
Rye.. 

10.2 
8.2 
11  6 

3.5 

7.2 
1  9 

18.4 
42.3 
106 

23.2 
5.6 

1  7 

24.7 
23.6 
79  5 

Rice.  .  .  . 

128 

7 

7  5 

5 

78  1 

Sorghum  seed  
Broom  corn  seed  
Millet  seed  
Sunflower-seed  
Canada  field  peas  
Cowpeas  

12.8 
12.7 
14.0 
8.6 
13.4 
14.8 

2.1 
3.4 
3.3 
2.6 
2.4 
3.2 

9.1 
10.2 
11.8 
16.3 
22.4 
20.8 

1    2.6 
7.1 
9.5 
29.9 
6.4 
4.1 

69.8 
63.6 
57.4 
21.4 
52.6 
557 

Soy  beans  

10.8 

4.7 

34.0 

4.8 

28.8 

Fat. 


Per  cent. 

5.0 
5.0 
8.1 
5.2 
4.7 
4.8 
3.5 
11.8 
3.1 
7.8 

2.1 
3.0 
4.0 
4.0 

1.1 
.9 

5.0 
5.0 
7.1 
8.0 

2.2 
3.3 
7.0 

1.8 
2.2 
2.6 
1.7 

7.9 
19.9 
13.1 

1.7 
.4 

3.6      I 

3.0 

4.0 
21.2 

3.0 

1.4 
16.9 


13 


194  POULTRY  FEEDS 

Mixed  Feeds  and  Manufactured  Products. — Certain  classes 
of  products  designed  for  poultry  feeding  are  manufactured  in 
different  sections  of  the  United  States.  In  some  instances  it  has 
not  been  proved  that  these  materials  are  objectionable,  but  in 
nearly  every  case  experiments  show  that  the  ingredients  which 
are  supposed  to  be  furnished  can  be  more  economically  secured 
from  natural  sources.  A  great  variety  of  so-called  ready-mixed 
feeds  are  advertised.  They  are  supposed' to  contain  a  given  amount 
of  nutrients  in  a  very  economical  form.  In  practice  a  great  major- 
ity of  such  feeds  should  be  avoided,  as  many  of  them  are  adultera- 
tions containing  a  large  amount  of  filler  and  make-weight  material. 
Analyses  made  at  various  experiment  stations  show  the  following 
materials  to  be  occasionally  used  in  such  feeds :  Oat  hulls,  ground 
peanut  shucks,  cut  straw  and  hay,  sand,  and  other  foreign  sub- 
stances, which  are  used  to  increase  the  bulk  and  the  weight  of 
the  feed.  It  is  a  much  more  economical  practice  for  poultry- 
men  to  purchase  the  standard  grains  and  by-products  and  do 
their  own  mixing.  Any  plan  which  will  lower  the  grain  bill  will 
be  helpful. 

Animal  Feeds. — Leading  authorities  agree  that,  for  the  best 
results  in  poultry  feeding,  the  birds  should  be  given  protein  and 
other  nutrients  from  animal  as  well  as  from  vegetable  sources. 
All  feeding  experiments  show  that  where  animal  protein  is  entirely 
withheld  the  birds  do  not  make  so  good  nor  economical  growth, 
and  cannot  be  made  to  produce  as  many  eggs  in  a  given  period. 
There  are  several  sources  from  which  nutrients  of  an  animal  origin 
can  be  obtained.  Their  use  depends  somewhat  on  location  and 
upon  the  price  of  the  different  ingredients  in  local  markets. 

Meat  scrap  is  undoubtedly  the  most  popular  of  the  different 
forms  of  animal  matter  for  poultry.  There  are  many  grades  on 
the  market,  which  may  be  grouped  as  high  grade  or  low  grade. 

The  high-grade  meat  usually  contains  about  60  per  cent  of 
protein  and  the  low-grade  about  35  to  40  per  cent.  It  will  always 
be  found  more  economical  to  purchase  high-grade  meat  scrap,  as 
the  price  per  pound  of  protein  will  be  less.  Then,  too,  the  high- 
grade  meat  is  usually  more  sanitary  and  better  prepared.  A  com- 
mercial practice  is  to  cook  the  carcasses  or  pieces  of  meat  under 
steam  pressure  for  a  given  number  of  hours,  to  render  out  the  fat. 
This  sterilizes  them  completely  and  kills  any  bacteria  of  a  detri- 
mental nature  which  might  be  present.  Scrap  prepared  in  this 
way  is  not  apt  to  contain  poisonous  matter.  On  the  other  hand, 


ANIMAL  FEEDS  195 

it  is  sometimes  found  in  the  manufacture  of  low-grade  meat  scrap 
that  no  treatment  is  given  to  meat  which  would  purify  it;  in  other 
instances  it  is  treated  with  a  strong  acid.  When  such  methods 
are  followed,  there  is  danger  of  disease  bacteria  in  the  feed,  or  a 
strong  acid  residue  may  remain  when  ready  for  market.  Beef 
scrap  of  this  last  character  has  been  known  to  cause  considerable 
injury  and  loss  of  valuable  birds. 

Pork  scrap  is  sometimes  available  for  poultry  feeding,  but  it 
contains  a  larger  amount  of  fat  and  has  a  low  digestibility,  for 
which  reasons  it  is  not  as  desirable  as  beef  scrap. 

Bone  products  come  next  to  meat  scrap  in  popularity  and 
efficiency  as  animal  matter  for  poultry.  They  are  fed  either  green 
or  dried.  The  practice  in  preparing  green  bones  is  to  secure  them 
daily  from  the  meat  shop  and  grind  them  up  in  bone  cutters  and 
feed  them  fresh.  If  this  method  is  followed,  they  have  to  be  fed 
in  limited  quantities,  as  the  birds  will  not  stand  a  heavy  feeding. 
The  dried,  crushed  bone  is  a  very  efficient  source  of  protein  and 
ash  in  baby-chick  feeding.  (See  also  page  201.) 

Animal  Meal. — Meat  scrap,  mixed  with  quite  a  large  percentage 
of  bone  and  fat,  is  often  ground  up  exceedingly  fine,  thoroughly 
dried,  and  sold  in  the  form  of  "  animal  meal."  It  has  about  the 
same  feeding  value  as  meat  scrap,  but  there  is  a  greater  possibility 
of  adulteration,  and  the  feeder  cannot  be  so  sure  of  what  he  is  using. 

Dried  Blood. — This  is  a  dried  product  of  slaughter-houses,  and, 
when  properly  sterilized  and  stored  in  dry  places,  will  keep  indefi- 
nitely. It  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  limited  amounts  in 
poultry  mashes,  especially  to  check  diarrhoea ;  however,  it  possesses 
no  advantage  over  a  high-grade  meat  scrap  or  bone  product. 

Fish  Scrap. — The  feeding  of  fresh  fish  was  quite  extensively 
practised  at  one  time  in  localities  where  it  could  be  obtained, 
but,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  tainted  the  eggs  and  the  flesh  of 
poultry,  the  practice  was  discontinued.  Properly  prepared  fish 
scrap,  from  which  the  oil  has  been  entirely  removed,  is  being  fed 
with  very  good  results  in  certain  sections,  especially  in  California. 
A  very  essential  feature  in  the  manufacture  of  fish  scrap  for  poultry 
feeding  is  that  all  the  oil,  which  carries  the  objectionable  odor 
and  flavor,  should  be  removed.  Some  high-grade  fish  scrap  is 
manufactured  at  about  one-half  of  the  cost  of  meat  scrap.  This 
contains  considerable  protein.  If  possible  to  obtain  this,  it  will 
make  a  very  satisfactory  substitute. 

Clams  and  other  shell  fish,  if  available  in  sufficient  quantities, 


196 


POULTRY  FEEDS 


may  be  fed  to  poultry.  They  are  palatable  and  supply  some 
digestible  material. 

Milk. — If  they  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities  at  a 
price  which  is  not  prohibitive,  milk  and  its  by-products  are  very 
economical  feeds.  When  used  in  large  quantities,  they  furnish 
protein  in  an  easily  digested  form.  One  undesirable  feature  is  the 
increased  labor  and  trouble  in  feeding  them,  especially  when  milk 
itself  in  the  natural  state  is  used. 

Skim  milk  is  probably  more  often  used  in  the  neighborhood 
of  large  creameries  or  skimming  stations  than  any  other  of  the  milk 
products.  This  material  will  supply  concentrated  protein  in  the 
ration  when  wet  mashes  are  mixed  with  it.  If  desired  it  may  also 
be  given  in  the  drinking  fountains  in  place  of  water.  Birds  con- 
sume large  quantities  with  very  beneficial  effects.  It  is  used  in 
commercial  fattening  of  poultry,  the  wet  mashes  being  moistened 
with  it.  Reports  show  that  the  feeding  of  buttermilk  or  sour  skim 
milk  to  baby  chicks  is  good  practice,  as  the  lactic  acid  present 
reduces  the  danger  of  infection  and  the  spread  of  white  diarrhoea. 

TABLE  VIII. — Composition  of  Animal  Feeds. 

(Total  ingredients  are  given,  regardless  of  their  digestibility.) 


Feed. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Meat  scrap  (high  grade).. 
Meat  scrap  (low  grade  .  .  . 
Pork  scrap  
Ground  bone  (dry)  
Green  cut  bone  
Animal  meal  
Blood  meal  
Dried  blood  
Fresh  fish  

Per  cent. 

10.70 
15.40 
11.0 
8.19-* 
38.94 
4.90 
10.61 
6.70 
44.0 

Per  cent. 

4.10 
2.50 
2.2 
56.95 
26.12 
42.65 
4.65 
6.60 
1.00 

Per  cent. 

60.20 
45.00 
55.0 
31.36 
20.37 
30.45 
75.69 
65.10 
10.50 

Per  cent. 

3.30 

1.28 

42.00 

Per  cent. 

10.32 
1.46 
5.30 

Per  cent. 

25.00 
37.10 
31.8 
3.50 
11.67 
8.38 
7.11 
16.30 
2.io 

Fish  scrap  (variable)  .... 
Clams  and  other  shell  fish 
Whole  milk 

5-10 
34.10 

872 

2-8 
2.30 
6 

34.0-50 
6.00 
36 

55.00 

'2.00 
49 

17.0 
.60 

3  7 

Skim  milk 

906 

7 

3  1 

53 

3 

Buttermilk 

90  1 

7 

40 

40 

1.2 

Whey 

938 

4 

6 

5  1 

.1 

Cheese 

406 

34 

237 

1  7 

30.6 

Milk  albumen  
Granulated  milk 

18.0 

285 

3.(?) 
36 

43,0 
13.7 

(?) 
51.1 

1-5 
3.1 

Hens'  egg  (others  similar) 

66.7 

12.2 

12.2 

8.9 

Whey. — This  by-product  of  cheese  making  should  be  used  when 
it  can  be  obtained.  It  does  not  have  the  nutrients  which  the  butter- 
milk and  skim  milk  contain,  but  it  is  relished  by  the  birds. 


ANIMAL  FEEDS  197 

Granulated  Milk. — A  milk  product  available  for  poultry  feed- 
ing is  known  as  granulated  or  powdered  milk.  It  is  whole  milk 
evaporated  and  crystallized.  Its  cost  is  very  high,  and  in  most 
cases  prohibitive.  The  only  case  where  it  can  profitably  be 
used  is  in  the  feeding  of  chicks  for  the  first  few  weeks  of  their 
growth. 

Milk  Albumen. — Another  milk  by-product  upon  the  market  in 
large  quantities,  and  so  well  distributed  that  all  poultrymen  can 
use  it  if  they  desire,  is  milk  albumen.  This  is  formed  from  skim 
milk  during  the  manufacture  of  milk  sugar.  It  comes  in  various 
sizes  and  grades,  suitable  both  for  use  in  dry  mashes  and  in  scratch- 
ing rations.  It  varies  considerably  in  composition  according  to 
method  of  manufacture. 

Eggs. — On  most  poultry  plants  there  are  infertile  eggs  which 
are  tested  and  taken  out  of  incubators  at  the  different  stages  of 
incubation.  These  eggs,  if  it  is  not  possible  to  dispose  of  them 
legitimately  for  baking  purposes,  should  be  utilized  in  the  feeding 
of  the  birds.  The  best  practice  is  to  boil  them  hard  and  feed  them 
to  baby  chicks  or  growing  stock,  it  being  a  good  plan  to  cut  them 
up  fine  and  mix  with  wheat  bran.  It  is  not  recommended  to  feed 
whole  eggs  with  the  shells  on  to  adult  birds,  as  it  has  a  tendency 
to  teach  them  to  eat  eggs.  It  is  also  not  a  safe  practice  to  feed 
hard-boiled  eggs  to  extremely  young  chicks.  A  better  time  to 
start  is  when  the  chicks  are  about  two  weeks  old.  Eggs  which 
contain  dead  germs,  if  the  hatch  is  tested  on  the  fifth  to  the  seventh 
day,  may  be  used  equally  well.  In  feeding  hard-boiled  eggs,  the 
practice  should  be  to  feed  only  what  the  birds  will  clean  up  soon. 
If  eggs  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  floor  or  the  brooder  or  in  the 
feeding  yard,  they  will  sour  and  produce  an  unsanitary  feed. 

<  Legumes  and  grasses  are  usually  fed  to  poultry  in  two  different 
forms:  First,  in  the  cured  state  in  the  form  of  hay;  and  second, 
in  the  form  of  green  succulence.  In  the  dry  condition  they  are 
usually  cut  fine  and  mixed  in  the  dry  mash  to  increase  bulkiness. 
Alfalfa,  clover,  and  certain  mixed  grasses  are  generally  used  for 
this  purpose.  There  are  on  the  market  short-cut  clover  and  alfalfa 
hay  and  also  clover  and  alfalfa  meal.  .  Where  alfalfa  or  clover  can- 
not be  raised  on  the  farm,  it  is  profitable  to  include  one  of  these 
in  the  short-cut  form  in  the  dry  mash  for  the  laying  birds  during 
the  winter. 

Alfalfa  hay,  both'  in  the  short-cut  and  meal  forms,  offers  ex- 
ceedingly good  opportunity  for  the  use  of  adulterants;  for  this 
reason  the  short-cut  form  is  most  desired,  as  the  percentage  of 


198 


POULTRY  FEEDS 


adulterated  material  can  easily  be  detected.     Clean  alfalfa  hay 
is  bright  green  in  color  and  has  the  true  alfalfa  smell. 

Cut  timothy  is  often  used  as  an  adulterant,  and  this  can  easily 
be  detected  by  the  large  amount  of  yellow  or  brown  material  pres- 
ent; this  adulteration  cannot  easily  be  detected  in  fine-ground  or 
meal  form. 

TABLE  IX. — Composition  of  Hays  and  Grasses. 

(Total  ingredients  are  given,  regardless  of  their  digestibility.) 


Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Alfalfa  (green)  
Alfalfa  (dry) 

Per  cent. 
80.00 

11.90 

Per  cent. 
1.80 

7.13 

Per  cent. 
4.90 

14.12 

Per  cent. 
4.70 

27.09 

Per  cent. 
7.90 

37.34 

Per  cent. 
.07 

2  42 

Clover  (green)  
Clover  (dry)  

70.80 
10.00 

2.10 
8.10 

4.40 
16.32 

8.10 
17.84 

13.50 
45.99 

1.10 
1.75 

Lawn  clippings  (green)..  . 
Lawn  clippings  (dry)  .... 
Barley  (green).  
Peas  and  oats  (green)..  .  . 

76.40 
15.30 
76.00 
80.50 

2.40 
5.50 
7.30 
1.74 

2.30 
7.40 
2.71 
2.90 

4.10 
27.20 
6.90 
600 

13.80 
42.10 
7.00 
8.80 

1.00 
2.50 
.09 
.06 

The  green  crops  which  are  raised  for  poultry  feeding  most 
extensively  are  alfalfa,  clover,  peas,  beans,  cereals,  and  buckwheat. 
All  green  succulent  grasses  are  desirable,  and  the  one  which  grows 
best  during  a  given  month  should  be  ready  at  that  time.  Legumes 
are  most  desirable  for  feed,  as  they  contain  considerable  protein 
and  produce  a  heavy  yield.  A  small  alfalfa  field  should  be  run 
in  connection  with  every  poultry  plant,  and  will  allow  from  three 
to  six  cuttings  of  the  same  field  during  the  season,  supplying  a 
continuous  source  of  green  feed. 

Vegetables. — A  valuable  property  of  vegetables  in  poultry 
feeding  is  the  amount  of  water  they  contain.  They  make  very 
desirable  succulent  feed  where  they  can  be  grown  successfully. 
Fresh,  leafy  vegetables  can  be  used  for  only  a  short  time,  as  they 
wilt  and  spoil  quickly.  Some  of  the  root  crops,  such  as  mangels 
and  beets,  maintain  their  succulent  condition  for  a  long  time,  and 
will  furnish  succulence  well  through  the  winter  if  properly  stored. 

The  leading  vegetable  crops  found  most  useful  in  supplying 
succulence,  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  are  considered  here. 
It  is  rather  hard  to  keep  vegetable  crops  in  storage  for  any  con- 
siderable time  during  the  winter  without  a  special  place,  as  in  an 
underground  root  cellar.  They  are  often  used  up  soon  after  their 
natural  season  to  prevent  loss  in  storage. 


VEGETABLES  199 

Potatoes. — Potatoes  are  not  extensively  used  for  poultry  feed- 
ing, and  should  be  fed  sparingly.  Birds  eat  them  readily,  especially 
when  cooked  and  mixed  with  a  mash.  The  results  of  eating  a 
great  many  of  them  in  this  form  are  to  decrease  the  appetite  for 
complete  rations  at  future  feedings,  and  to  put  on  excessive  fat, 
due  to  high  content  of  carbohydrate.  Raw  potatoes  are  not  eaten 
readily  by  birds. 

Beets,  as  a  group,  form  one  of  the  most  valuable  succulent 
crops.  The  several  types  are  garden  beets,  mangel-wurzels,  and 
sugar  beets.  Mangel-wurzels  are  valued  for  their  extremely  large 
size  and  large  yields  per  acre.  They  contain  considerable  water 


FIG.  117. — Mangel-wurzel  beets  at  harvest  time.      The  tops  are  cut  green  and  fed  immedi- 
ately; the  roots  are  pulled  and,  after  curing  a  few  days,  are  stored  for  winter  feeding. 

in  the  fresh  state,  are  easily  preserved  in  good  condition  well  into 
the  winter,  are  relished  by  the  fowls,  and  will  produce  no  harmful 
results.  They  will  not  entirely  replace  greens  as  a  source  of  suc- 
culence, but  are  among  the  best  substitutes  available  (Fig.  117). 
Dried  beet  pulp,  which  is  a  by-product  of  the  beet-sugar  industry, 
has  been  tried  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  means  of  supplying  succu- 
lence to  poultry  during  the  winter  when  other  sources  were  not 
available.  Results  tend  to  show  that  it  can  be  profitably  used  for 
the  purpose. 

Other  Root  Crops. — Turnips,  carrots,  and  parsnips  are  used  in 
limited  amounts  where  they  are  available.  When  fresh  and  cut 
in  vegetable  cutters,  birds  relish  them  as  well  as  they  do  mangels. 
It  is  generally  the  practice  to  use  only  small  roots  which  cannot 


200 


POULTRY  FEEDS 


be  sold  for  market  purposes,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  hold  large 
quantities  of  them  over  for  any  length  of  time,  as  they  begin  to 
rot  quickly  and  the  feeding  of  rotted  or  decayed  products  of  this 
kind  tends  to  produce  bad  flavors  in  the  eggs. 

Onions  have  always  been  considered  as  a  tonic  when  fed  to 
poultry  in  small  quantities,  the  general  practice  being  to  cut  them 
up  fine  and  feed  them  in  wet  mashes.  Birds  relish  onions  in  all 
forms.  It  is  necessary  to  limit  the  amount  fed,  however,  as  they 
are  apt  to  impart  some  of  their  odor  to  the  eggs  and  flesh.  Limited 
quantities  of  chopped  onion  tops  are  a  desirable  addition  to  rations 
for  growing  chicks. 

TABLE  X. — Composition  of  Vegetables. 

(Total  ingredients  are  given,  regardless  of  their  digestibility.) 


Feed. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Roofs. 
Potatoes  (white)  ........ 

Per  cent. 
78  9 

Per  cent. 
1  0 

Per  cent. 
2  1 

Per  cent. 

6 

Per  cent. 

17  3 

Per  cent. 
0  1 

Potatoes  (sweet) 

71  1 

1  0 

1  6 

I  3 

94  g 

4 

Beets  (mangel) 

90  9 

1  1 

1  4 

q 

5  5 

2 

Beets  (sugar)  
Beet  pulp  (dry)  
Beet  pulp  (wet) 

86.4 
8.0 

89  8 

.9 
5.4 
6 

1.8 
9.5 
() 

.9 
15.4 
2  4 

9.8 
61.3 
6  3 

.1 
.4 

Onions 

87  6 

6 

1  4 

c)  4 

3 

Turnips       .  .  . 

90  5 

8 

1  i 

1  2 

6  2 

2 

Carrots 

88  6 

1  0 

1  i 

1  3 

7  6 

4 

Artichokes 

800 

1  0 

2  5 

8 

15  5 

2 

Leaves. 
Cabbage 

90  5 

1  4 

3  8 

1  5 

2  4 

4 

Lettuce  
Beet  tops  . 

95.9 
88  0 

.8 
2.4 

1.6 
4.4 

.5 
22 

1.0 
26 

2 
°  2 

Rape  
Onion  tops  
Chard  (Swiss)  

89.2 
91.0 
87.8 

2.0 
1.1 
2.4 

3.4 
3.9 
4.4 

2.6 
3.0 
2.9 

2.3 

.8 
2.5 

.5 
.2 
.4 

Cabbage  is  one  of  the  most  popular  and  most  valuable  vege- 
tables for  succulent  poultry  feed.  The  crop  grows  rapidly  and  a 
large  yield  is  possible  from  a  small  area.  Its  keeping  qualities 
are  as  good  as  or  better  than  most  other  vegetables.  It  is  the  best 
practice  when  growing  cabbage  for  poultry  feeding  to  allow  it  to 
head  up  well,  because  the  total  weight  of  succulent  feed  is  thereby 
greatly  increased.  Cabbage  may  either  be  fed  chopped  fine  and 
mixed  with  mashes,  or  it  may  be  suspended  on  a  cord  or  on  a 
hook  and  the  birds  allowed  to  eat  it  directly  from  the  head. 


MINERALS  FOR  POULTRY  201 

Lettuce  is  as  desirable  a  source  of  succulent  feed  as  cabbage, 
but,  owing  to  the  smaller  yield,  its  poor  keeping  qualities,  and  its 
high  market  value  for  human  consumption,  it  is  little  used  for 
poultry.  It  is  often  economical  to  raise  small  quantities  of  lettuce 
for  the  feeding  of  baby  chicks,  as  they  relish  it  and  thrive  on  it. 

Kohl-rabi  may  be  spoken  of  as  a  turnip-cabbage.  The  fleshy 
stem  is  used  for  its  succulence.  In  value  it  is  about  equal  to  turnip, 
and  the  keeping  qualities  are  good. 

Rape  is  used  where  it  is  desired  to  sow  the  crop  broadcast  and 
either  allow  the  birds  access  to  it  or  harvest  it  with  a  scythe.  It 
is  very  hardy  and  will  grow  in  the  fall  as  late  as  cabbage. 

Swiss  chard  is  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated,  the  crop  being 
supplied  to  the  birds  at  regular  intervals.  The  chard  will  grow 
continually  after  each  successive  cutting,  and  one  seeding  will 
produce  a  large  amount' of  succulent  feed  in  a  season. 

Minerals  for  Poultry. — The  importance  of  minerals  in  poultry 
rations  has  been  much  neglected  in  the  past.  Recent  experiments 
tend  to  show  that  the  character,  composition,  and  source  of  min- 
erals or  ash  in  a  ration  are  the  determining  features  as  to  the  effi- 
ciency of  a  given  ration. 

Dried  ground  bone,  either  in  the  form  of  bone  meal  or  granu- 
lated bone,  has  proved  to  be  a  very  good  source  of  both  protein 
and  phosphate.  Samples  averaging  25  per  cent  protein  and  24 
per  cent  of  mineral  matter  can  be  purchased  so  reasonably  as  to 
make  them,  beyond  doubt,  a  very  economical  source  of  protein 
and  ash.  Birds  relish  dried  bone.  It  has  no  laxative  properties, 
and  is  recommended  for  the  feeding  of  baby  chicks  and  growing 
stock. 

Fresh  cut  bone  consists  of  refuse  bone  and  clippings  from 
butcher-shops.  This  product  when  available,  ground  in  especially 
prepared  cutters,  is  a  very  good  source  of  protein  and  mineral 
matter.  The  supply  is  usually  limited,  and  the  price  rather  high. 
Where  a  large  number  of  birds  are  to  be  fed,  it  is  better  to  purchase 
the  bones  in  bulk,  and  grind  them  by  the  use  of  a  power  bone 
cutter  on  the  plant.  Fresh  bone  is  not  good  for  growing  chicks, 
but  will  produce  excellent  results  when  fed  to  laying  stock.  It  is 
very  forcing  when  fed  in  large  quantities,  and  it  is  the  best  practice 
to  limit  it  to  less  than  15  per  cent  of  the  chy-mash  ration.  (See 
also  page  195.) 

Crushed  oyster  shell  is  the  best  source  of  lime  in  the  ration. 
Ash  from  this  source  is  important  for  the  formation  of  egg  shells 


202  POULTRY  FEEDS 

in  the  case  of  laying  hens.  It  seems  to  be  of  less  value  for  growing 
chicks,  as  it  contains  little  if  any  phosphate.  Samples  of  crushed 
oyster  shells  usually  run  over  95  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime. 
Crushed  shells  are  especially  valuable  when  they  can  be  fed  fresh, 
that  is,  gathered  regularly  from  the  beach,  or  after  the  oysters 
or  clams  have  been  removed,  and  immediately  crushed  or  ground. 

Sources  of  Phosphate. — Composition  (pounds  in  100). 

Phosphoric  acid, 
Protein.  P2O5. 

Granulated  bone  (dry) 25  24 

Green  cut  bone 19  to  34       23  to  25 

Phosphate  rock 28  to  32 

Poultry  grit  is  not  valuable  as  a  source  of  ash,  as  it  usually 
contains  little  if  any  lime,  and  very  little  phosphate,  the  main 
component  being  silica.  The  function  of  grit  is  that  of  grinding. 

Other  Sources  of  Mineral  Matter. — There  are  a  great  many 
advertised  sources  of  mineral  matter  for  poultry  feeding.  Few  of 
the  commercial  forms,  however,  seem  to  supply  the  particular 
kind  of  mineral  in  the  best  form.  Raw  phosphate  rock  gives  fair 
results,  but  the  available  mineral  matter  is  small  in  comparison 
with  its  bulk.  There  are  certain  advertised  commercial  feeds 
which  are  guaranteed  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  ash.  Some 
of  these,  owing  to  their  physical  properties,  are  of  little  value, 
and  are  not  economical  when  compared  with  the  results  obtained 
by  the  use  of  cheaper  and  better-known  materials,  such  as  bone 
products. 

Ash  in  Grains. — Wheat  bran  is  a  very  efficient  source  of  ash 
and  is  fed  quite  extensively  with  this  purpose  in  view.  Consider- 
ing only  its  value  as  a  protein  carrier,  the  cost  of  wheat  bran  is 
relatively  high,  but  considering  its  palatability  and  high  ash  con- 
tent it  can  be  highly  recommended.  It  is  desirable  in  the  feeding 
of  baby  chicks.  There  are  other  grains,  such  as  barley  and  oats, 
which  contain  enough  ash  to  be  worth  considering. 

Double  Function  of  Minerals. — Experiments  show  that  the  ash 
content  in  a  ration  bears  a  definite  relation  to  the  complete  use 
of  other  nutrients  in  it.  Not  only  is  the  actual  availability  of  the 
mineral  matter  itself  of  value,  but  mineral  compounds  have  a 
very  noticeable  effect  in  increasing  the  digestibility  of  other 
nutrients  in  the  ration,  especially  protein.  Minerals  thus  perform 
a  double  function. 


REVIEW  203 


REVIEW. 

1 .  Into  what  two  great  groups  can  all  feeds  be  divided? 

2.  Name  the  inorganic  substances  used  for  feed. 

3.  Discuss  the  use  of  water  in  digestion  and  assimilation. 

4.  When-  and  where  should  salt  be  used? 

5.  When  are  phosphates  especially  useful? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  organic  feeds?    Give  several  examples. 

7.  Where  does  corn  rank  as  a  poultry  feed? 

8.  What  by-products  of  corn  are  used  in  poultry  feeding? 

9.  Discuss  wheat  and  its  by-products  as  a  poultry  feed. 

10.  Name  the  parts  of  the  wheat  kernel  and  what  feed  each  forms  after  milling. 

11.  Tell  of  the  value  of  oats  as  a  poultry  feed. 

12.  Discuss  sprouted  oats,  their  use,  and  methods  of  sprouting. 

13.  Give  the  composition  of  sprouted  oats. 

14.  Discuss  the  use  of  each  of  the  following  grains  in  poultry  feeding:    Buck- 

wheat; barley;  rye;  rice;  sorghum  seed;  sunflower  seed;  peas  and  beans. 

15.  What  is  the  source  of  oil  meal? 

16.  What  is  the  advice  regarding  the  use  of  ready-mixed  feeds  and  manu- 

factured product? 

17.  Enumerate  the  important  feeds  of  animal  origin. 

18.  With  respect  to  what  nutrient  are  they  especially  important? 

19.  Give  the  composition  of  beef  scrap,  and  discuss  its  use  as  a  feed. 

20.  Give  the  composition  of  ground  bone,  and  its  use  as  a  poultry  feed. 

21.  From  what  standpoints  is  milk  a  desirable  feed? 

22.  Discuss  the  use  of  skim  milk  in  poultry  feeding. 

23.  Under  what  conditions  can  eggs  be  profitably  used  in  feeding  poultry? 

Tell  how. 

24.  Discuss,  in  detail,  hays  and  grasses  as  to  their  uses  as  feeds. 

25.  What  vegetables  are  often  grown  for  feeding  poultry? 

26.  Discuss  mangel-wurzel  beets  as  feed  for  poultry. 

27.  Give  the  sources  of  mineral  matter  in  the  ration. 

28.  Discuss  minerals  and  their  effect  upon  digestibility. 

References.— The  Economic  Value  of  Root  Crops,  by  E.  R.  Minn,  Cornell 
Bulletin  317.  Poultry  Feeding  Stuffs,  by  H.  J.  Wheeler,  Rhode  Island  Bulle- 
tin 84.  Poultry  Feeding,  by  M.  E.  Jaffa,  California  Bulletin  164.  Condimental 
Feeds,  Delaware  Report,  1901.  Commercial  Feeding  Stuffs,  United  States 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  Bulletin  108.  Alfalfa  Meal  as  a  Feeding  Stuff,  in  U.  S. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  259. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING. 

BEFORE  discussing  the  requirements  of  a  successful  ration  and 
the  practice  commonly  used  in  the  feeding  of  poultry,  it  is  well 
that  the  design  and  construction  of  the  feed  house  be  considered 
and  that  the  equipment  be  reviewed. 

FEEDING    EQUIPMENT. 

The  Poultry  Feed  House. — A  great  many  poultry  plants, 
whether  small  or  large,  owing  to  improper  facilities  for  the  handling 
of  feed  and  the  mixing  of  rations,  lose  large  sums  of  money  through 
waste  and  labor  which  could  easily  be  saved  by  careful  attention 
to  better  methods. 

In  the  design  and  laying  out  of  a  poultry  plant,  one  of  the 
things  to  be  considered  is  the  location  of  the  feed  house.  It  should 
be  centrally  located  on  rather  high  ground,  if  possible,  giving  good 
drainage  and  freedom  from  dampness;  it  should  be  easy  of  access 
both  from  the  main  highway  and  from  the  different  units  or  laying 
houses  themselves.  In  some  instances  it  is  desirable  to  locate  the 
feeding  room  in  the  centre  of  the  long  laying  house,  having  over- 
head tracks  running  from  the  feeding  room  directly  to  the  different 
houses.  This  is  a  great  labor-saving  device,  and  proves  very 
serviceable  in  the  caring  for  adult  birds  in  the  intensive  house. 
In  equipping  broiler  plants,  where  a  special  feed  room  is  required 
for  chick  rations,  the  overhead  track  system  has  been  found  very 
economical  and  practical. 

In  planning  the  style  and  construction,  two  things  should  be 
borne  in  mind:  First,  to  have  the  building  large  enough  for  the 
storing  of  grains  and  the  proper  housing  of  the  feeding  appliances ; 
and,  second,  to  have  it,  as  far  as  possible,  proof  against  mice  and  rats. 

The  feed  house  is  often  two  stories  in  height  (Fig.  118),  with 
the  grain-storage  bin  located  on  the  second  floor  and  the  rations 
falling  through  chutes  to  the  lower  floor.  This  gives  ample  room 
on  the  lower  floor  for  the  proper  arrangement  of  mixers,  grinders, 
and  other  appliances.  There  must  be  room  for  feed  pails,  for 
drinking  fountains,  for  hoppers,  and  for  storage  when  needed. 

204 


FEEDING  EQUIPMENT 


205 


It  may  be  possible  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year  to  buy 
at  reduced  prices  large  quantities  of  grain  and  hold  it  for  later  use. 
Thus  much  can  be  saved.  This  practice  is  impossible  without 
large  storage  bins. 

The  feature  of  having  the  house  proof  against  rats  and  mice 
is  important;  for,  if  these  enemies  gain  access  to  the  grains,  a  con- 
stant and  considerable  loss  will  be  going  on  which  may  be  almost 
unnoticed.  On  an  extensive  plant  it  may  be  feasible  to  construct 
the  entire  feed  room  of  concrete  or  hollow  tile;  but  where,  owing 
to  limited  funds  or  other  reasons,  it  is  necessary  to  erect  a  frame 
building,  it  will  be  found  a  very  desirable  practice  to  fill  in  concrete- 


FIG.  118. — Poultry  feed  house  centrally  located,  with  long  laying  house  on  either  side. 
The  upper  floor  is  used  for  storage  of  hay  and  grain,  and  the  lower  floor  for  mixing  and 
weighing. 

between  the  inside  sheathing  and  the  outside  weather  boarding  to 
a  height  of  about  thirty  inches  from  the  ground.  If  this  is  done 
during  the  construction  of  the  house,  it  adds  very  little  to  the  cost 
and  prevents  rats  and  mice  from  gnawing  through  from  the  out- 
side. In  addition  to  this,  a  good,  heavy  concrete  floor  should  be 
laid  on  a  crushed  stone  or  cinder  bottom.  If  the  moisture  insula- 
tion of  tar  paper  be  used,  as  described  in  Chapter  VII,  it  will 
insure  dryness,  which  is  essential  to  keep  the  grains  from  molding, 
besides  adding  to  the  rat-proof  feature. 

Special  Feed-room  Equipment. — The  amount,  character,  and 
size  of  the  appliances  required  properly  to  equip  the  feed  room  for 
work  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  size  of  the  plant  and  the 
character  of  the  work  to  be  done.  A  poultry  plant  making  a 


206  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

specialty  of  egg  production,  with  market  broilers  and  dressed 
poultry  on  the  side,  may  require  under  average  conditions  the 
following  equipment  in  the  feed  room :  Caldron,  dry-mash  mixer, 
vegetable  cutter,  hay  cutter,  bone  cutter,  and  power. 

Caldron. — A  cooker  or  steamer  is  useful  for  the  cooking  of  hot 
mashes  during  the  winter,  in  the  preparation  of  special  mashes 
for  special  feeding  purposes,  and  in  heating  or  scalding  any 
moldy  or  partially  injured  grains  to  restore  their  feeding  value. 
Water  may  be  heated  in  it  for  the  scalding  of  utensils.  Such  a 
caldron  should  be  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  gallons  capacity  and 
strongly  built. 

Dry-mash  Mixer. — On  plants  where  a  large  number  of  birds 
are  fed  and  where  such  materials  as  green  cut  clover  and  ground 
bone  are  used  in  the  mashes,  it  is  necessary  to  mix  them  daily; 
where  this  is  done  a  good  power  mixer  will  save  labor.  Most  of 
these  mixers  are  similar  to  a  baker's  dough  mixer.  An  important 
feature  in  the  mixer  is  that  the  basin  can  be  easily  emptied.  The 
floats  or  mixers  should  do  the  work  thoroughly  and  quickly. 

On  small  plants  such  an  equipment  is  not  required.  One  of 
the  most  economical  methods  is  to  mix  the  ration  on  the  floor  by 
means  of  scoop  shovels,  mixing  from  500  to  1,000  pounds  at  one 
time  and  storing  it  in  bins  ready  for  use. 

Vegetable  Cutter. — A  vegetable  cutter  is  often  used  if  many 
vegetables,  such  as  beets,  are  fed.  Birds  seem  to  relish  them  better 
and  eat  more  of  them  if  they  are  finely  cut  and  fed  in  troughs; 
there  is  less  waste  but  more  labor  than  if  they  are  fed  whole. 

Hay  Cutter. — Fresh  clover,  alfalfa,  and  other  green,  succulent 
materials  are  often  run  through  a  hay  cutter,  which  can  also  be 
used  for  the  cutting  of  dry  hay,  such  as  alfalfa,  and  straw  for  litter. 

Bone  Cutter. — In  localities  where  it  is  possible  to  secure  a  supply 
of  fresh  bones,  it  may  be  well  to  have  a  power  bone  cutter.  Some 
forms  can  be  used  either  for  dry  or  green  bones.  Cut  bones  pro- 
vide a  very  economical  source  of  animal  protein  and  ash. 

Power. — A  plant  large  enough  to  warrant  the  extensive  equip- 
ment as  outlined  should  have  some  source  of  power  to  run  the 
machines.  The  gasoline  engine  will  doubtless  prove  the  cheapest 
and  best  on  a  farm.  Near  large  centres  of  population  an  electric 
motor  will  probably  supply  the  power  more  cheaply.  In  the  equip- 
ment of  the  feed  room  an  effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  the  labor 
item  to  a  minimum.  This  will  allow  one  man  to  care  for  an  in- 
creased number  of  birds;  in  other  words,  it  will  lower  the  labor 


FEEDING  EQUIPMENT  207 

cost  per  bird  during  the  year.  The  labor  item  is  the  second 
greatest  item  in  the  cost  of  production,— feed  being  first. 

Feed  Wagons.— On  large  plants  where  the  attendant  makes 
his  rounds  and  must  cover  considerable  distance,  it  is  found  very 
feasible  to  do  the  feeding  from  a  wagon  constructed  for  the  purpose 
(Fig.  119).  This  wagon  may  contain  egg  cases  for  the  collection 
of  eggs,  and  a  box  or  receptacle  for  the  removal  of  droppings  when 
the  houses  are  cleaned.  Such  a  wagon  is  also  useful  for  the  trans- 
portation of  young  stock  to  and  from  the  range. 

Compounding  Rations. — By  a  ration  is  meant  the  amount  of 
feed  given  a  bird  or  flock  of  birds  in  a  day.  It  includes  the  feed 


FIG.  119. — The  poultry  feed  wagon  is  a  great  labor  saver  in  caring  for  poultry  on 
the  range.     (Photo  from  Cornell  University.) 

given  both  naturally  on  the  range  or  in  the  yard  and  that  pro- 
vided by  the  feeder. 

In  compounding  the  ration  or  daily  diet  for  a  laying  hen, 
several  factors  should  be  carefully  considered :  Breed,  age  of  birds, 
housing  condition,  season,  and  range.  The  prices  of  feed  and  the 
amount  of  labor  must  be  taken  into  account.  Other  points  are 
discussed  under  the  headings  that  follow. 

Sufficient  Nutrients. — The  first  requisite  in  a  successful  ration 
is  that  it  contains  a  sufficient  amount  of  feed  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose desired.  The  nourishing  parts  of  feed  are  called  "  nutrients  "; 
these  are  of  several  kinds:  Protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat.  The 
nutrients  in  a  feed  may  be  expressed  either  in  the  amount  required 
per  bird  or  the  amount  required  per  100  pounds  in  live  weight. 
Owing  to  the  great  variation  in  the  weight  of  the  individuals,  it 


208  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

is  usually  expressed  in  the  latter  form.  Two  features  must  be 
considered  in  this  respect:  (1)  The  amount  of  each  of  the  three 
nutrients — protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat — that  100  pounds  live 
weight  will  require;  and  (2)  the  heat  or  energy  which  the  ration 
will  develop  when  consumed. 

As  stated  in  a  previous  chapter,  standards  have  been  devised 
that  give  approximately  the  amounts  of  different  nutrients  and 
the  number  of  heat  units  required.  Wheeler's  standard  shows 
digestible  nutrients  per  day  for  100  pounds  live  weight  for  hens 
in  full  laying  condition.  By  this  standard  it  will  be  noted  that 
as  birds  increase  in  size  the  amount  of  feed  required  by  the  indi- 
vidual is  increased  per  individual,  but  actually  decreased  for  each 
100  pounds  live  weight.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  fewer  in- 
dividuals are  required  to  make  the  100  pounds  weight.  Feeders 
often  fail  to  supply  enough  nutrients  for  heavy  layers. 

Nutrients  must  be  in  the  Right  Proportion. — It  is  just  as  essential 
that  the  nutrients  in  the  ration  be  of  the  right  proportion  as  that 
they  should  be  sufficient  in  amount.  The  right  proportion  will  be 
determined  by  the  purpose  of  feeding  and  by  the  age  and  character 
of  the  individuals  themselves.  For  instance,  if  the  purpose  is  to 
feed  for  fat  and  flesh,  as  in  the  preparation  of  birds  for  market,  an 
increased  proportion  of  fat  and  carbohydrates  in  the  feed  will  be 
required.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  feeding  is  for  egg  production, 
a  large  amount  of  protein  material  will  be  essential. 

The  age  and  the  breed  of  the  specimens  being  fed  influence 
the  proportion  of  nutrients  in  the  following  manner:  The  heavier 
breeds  naturally  have  a  tendency  to  take  on  flesh  quickly,  and, 
therefore,  large  proportions  of  fat-forming  nutrients  are  not  re- 
quired when  feeding  for  egg  production.  With  more  active  breeds, 
as  the  Leghorns,  more  of  such  nutrients  may  be  used.  As  the  indi- 
vidual gets  older  the  natural  tendency  becomes  more  and  more 
pronounced  to  take  on  excessive  flesh,  and  this  character  of  feed 
should  be  withheld. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — The  proportion  of  nutrients  in  any  ration  is 
called  the  "  nutritive  ratio."  By  nutritive  ratio  is  therefore  meant 
the  relative  value  of  the  particular  nutrients,  and  it  might  be  ex- 
pressed as  a  measure  of  quality.  The  ratio  is  expressed  in  numbers 
giving  the  protein  as  one  and  comparing  this  with  the  combined 
carbohydrates  and  fat.  For  instance,  a  ration  containing  100 
pounds  of  protein  and  400  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  will 
be  expressed  as  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  one  to  four. 


FEEDING  EQUIPMENT  209 

The  nutrients  must  first  be  reduced  to  the  same  value.  The 
fat  in  a  feed  is  richer  than  the  others  in  heat  value.  Fat  has  been 
found  to  have  an  energy  value  of  two  and  one-quarter  times  that 
of  carbohydrates,  so  that  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  reduce  them 
to  the  same  value,  to  use  this  coefficient  in  the  solution.  Nutritive 
ratio  can  be  expressed  in  the  following  manner,  by  formula :  Given 
a  ration  containing  10  pounds  protein,  30  pounds  carbohydrates, 
and  5  pounds  fat. 

Nutritive  ratio  =  1 :  4.13 

Protein     :    carbohydrates  +  (fat  X2. 25) 
10        :  30  +    (5X2.25) 

10        :  41.25 

1        :  4.13 

It  will  be  noticed  in  the  above  calculation  that  the  amount  of 
fat  present  was  multiplied  by  2.25. 

Potential  Energy. — It  is  often  helpful  to  know  the  heat  values 
which  the  nutrients  present  in  a  ration  will  develop  when  consumed 
by  the  birds.  This  capacity  is  expressed  by  the  term  "  potential 
energy."  This  means  the  measure  of  value  in  units  of  heat  or 
energy  in  the  nutrients  themselves. 

Potential  energy  is  expressed  in  calories  per  ounce.  A  calory 
is  a  unit  of  heat  or  energy.  It  is  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to 
raise  one  gram  (about  A  of  an  ounce)  of  water  one  degree  of 
temperature  on  the  centigrade  thermometer.  It  is  known  that 
one  ounce  of  carbohydrates  or  of  protein  has  a  potential  energy 
of  116  calories,  while  one  ounce  of  fat  has  a  potential  energy  of 
264  calories.  In  actual  practice  the  energy  value  of  any  ration 
may  be  quickly  determined  by  using  the  following  multiples :  One 
pound  of  protein  or  of  carbohydrates  will  develop  1,860  calories, 
and  one  pound  of  fat  will  develop  4,220  calories. 

Balanced  Rations. — It  is  possible  by  careful  calculation  to 
approximately  compound  a  ration  which  will  contain  a  sufficient 
amount  of  nutrients  in  the  right  proportion  for  the  laying  hen. 
When  this  is  done  the  ration  is  expressed  as  being  balanced,  or, 
better,  as  being  proportioned  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  indi- 
vidual for  combined  maintenance  and  production.  In  actual  prac- 
tice it  is  possible  to  balance  rations  for  only  short  intervals.  The 
ration  as  combined  may  leave  nothing  to  be  desired,  yet  the  birds 
exercise  their  power  of  selection,  some  individuals  getting  an  en- 
tirely different  diet  from  others.  Individual  desires  and  inclina- 
tions differ.  The  actual  feeding  practice  should  be  to  form  an 

14 


210  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

approximately  correct  ration,  watch  its  effect  upon  the  individual 
flocks,  and  modify  such  rations  as  judgment  may  indicate. 

Rations  must  Contain  Succulence  and  be  Palatable. — The  ration 
as  compounded  must  supply  to  the  birds  an  abundance  of  succulent 
material.  If  not  present  under  natural  conditions,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  supply  it  daily  from  an  artificial  source  for  at  least  one 
feeding.  Where  the  birds  have  free  range  and  an  abundance  of 
green  grass,  artificial  sources  are  not  necessary.  In  the  winter, 
sprouted  oats,  mangel  beets  and  cabbage,  one  or  all,  may  be 
economically  used.  In  the  summer  the  feeding  of  green  crops 
either  by  soiling  methods  or  pasture  should  be  largely  depended 
upon,  according  to  area  and  character  of  the  range. 

The  palatability  of  the  rations  should  not  be  overlooked,  for 
if  the  birds  do  not  like  a  ration  it  usually  means  that'  they  will 
not  consume  a  sufficient  amount  to  supply  their  needs.  The 
natural  craving  for  a  good  ration  will  increase  the  amount  con- 
sumed. In  most  cases  the  digestibility  of  a  ration  is  increased  by 
being  palatable,  because  secretion  of  digestive  juices  is  increased. 
Variety  is  an  important  factor  in  palatability. 

Sufficient  Bulk. — Rations  that  are  too  concentrated  should 
be  avoided.  When  consumed  they  do  not  distend  the  digestive 
organs  enough  to  allow  a  thorough  mixing  with  the  digestive 
juices.  The  feed  is  insufficiently  digested,  resulting  in  a  tendency 
to  produce  diarrhoea  and  other  disorders.  Such  materials  as 
wheat  bran,  short-cut  alfalfa,  ground  oats,  and  others,  when  added 
to  a  dry  mash,  increase  bulk  and  make  it  more  digestible  than 
if  the  ration  is  composed  of  only  middlings,  corn  meal,  gluten, 
and  meat  scrap. 

There  is  a  possibility,  on  the  other  hand,  of  having  a  ration 
too  bulky,  so  that  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  birds  to  consume 
extremely  large  amounts  in  order  to  get  the  required  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients.  The  bulky  materials  added  usually  contain 
much  fibre  with  little  nutritive  value.  Care  must  be  exercised  in 
the  preparation  of  rations  to  have  them  of  proper  bulk. 

Economical  but  not  Cheap. — The  cheapest  feeds  which  can  be 
purchased  are  not  always  the  most  economical.  For  instance, 
100  pounds  of  meat  scrap  analyzing  40  per  cent  protein  can  now 
be  purchased  for  $50  a  ton,  and  meat  scrap  purchased  for  $60  a 
ton  usually  analyzes  60  per  cent  protein.  If  the  low-grade  meat 
scrap  is  purchased,  the  poultryman  pays  $6.25  for  every  hundred 
pounds  of  protein,  whereas  for  the  high-grade  meat  he  would  pay 


FEEDING  EQUIPMENT  211 

only  $5.00  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  protein.  In  other  words, 
the  purchase  should  be  based  on  the  total  amount  of  digestible 
material  which  can  be  procured  for  $1.00,  and  not  on  the  price 
of  100  pounds  of  the  material  in  bulk. 

Just  because  a  moldy  feed,  perhaps  cracked  corn,  which  has 
become  heated,  can  be  purchased  at  a  low  price,  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  it  is  the  most  economical  cracked  corn  which 
can  be  purchased.  In  such  cases  the  reverse  will  usually  be  true. 
In  selecting  poultry  feed  stuffs  from  which  to  form  a  ration,  quality 
should  come  first  and  cost  second. 

The  Cost  of  a  Pound  of  Protein. — It  is  often  necessary  to  pur- 
chase practically  all  the  protein  feed  stuffs,  while  many  of  the 
carbohydrate  feeds  can  be  produced  on  the  farm  if  there  is 
sufficient  room  to  admit  of  the  growing  of  such  crops  as  corn.  In 
all  cases  protein  feeds  are  the  most  expensive.  It  is  usually  the 
most  economical  practice,  in  deciding  which  feed  to  buy,  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  digestible  protein  present.  Wheat  bran  con- 
taining 12  per  cent  of  protein  has  12  pounds  of  protein  in  a  hun- 
dred. Corn  containing  8  per  cent  of  protein  has  8  pounds  in  a 
hundred.  Oil  meal  containing  30  per  cent  of  protein  has  30  pounds 
of  protein  in  a  hundred.  High-grade  meat  scrap  containing  60 
per  cent  of  protein  has  60  pounds  of  protein  in  a  hundred.  (The 
number  of  pounds  per  hundred  as  given  here  is  sometimes  referred 
to  as  units  per  ton.)  Take  these  weights  of  protein  as  a  basis  for 
figuring  cost  value.  A  unit  of  protein  in  such  feed  stuffs  can  now 
be  purchased  for  about  $1.00;  this  means  five  cents  per  pound. 

For  example,  high-grade  meat  scrap  showing  60  per  cent  of 
protein  will  contain  1,200  pounds  of  protein  in  every  ton.  Divide 
the  cost  of  a  ton,  which  is  $60,  by  1,200,  the  total  amount  of  pro- 
tein, and  we  have  the  cost  of  a  pound,  five  cents. 

The  above  method  will  be  found  very  efficient  in  determining 
the  most  economical  feed  to  purchase  to  supplement  home-grown 
or  purchased  carbohydrate  feeds. 

Ration  Easily  Mixed  and  Stored. — Since  labor  is  an  expensive 
item  on  the  poultry  plant,  it  will  be  found  economical,  from  a 
standpoint  of  time  and  labor,  to  compound  the  ration  of  such 
materials  as  are  easily  mixed,  and  store  them  in  large  quantities 
ready  for  use.  It  should  be  the  practice  to*  mix  both  the  dry  mash 
and  scratching  rations  separately  in  large  quantities  at  one  time. 
It  is  well  to  purchase  grains,  as  far  as  possible,  in  large  amounts 
at  frequent  intervals,  in  order  to  save  labor  in  handling.  It  will 


212  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

often  be  found  possible  to  buy  grains  in  bulk  out  of-  season  at  a 
much  reduced  price. 

Another  great  advantage  in  mixing  rations  in  large  quantities 
is  that  a  greater  uniformity  in  feeding  is  secured  than  when  each 
ration  is  mixed  daily.  Unless  a  great  deal  of  care  is  exercised, 
there  is  always  a  wide  variation  in  the  composition  when  mixed 
in  single  lots. 

Rations  Correctly  Fed. — Regularity  in  poultry  feeding  is  an 
important  requisite.  The  birds  become  accustomed  to  a  given 
hour  and  expect  their  feed  at  that  time.  Any  variation  from  this 
order  will  soon  result  in  a  reduced  production. 

Having  combined  the  best  possible  ration,  intelligence  is  re- 
quired in  feeding  it  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  Condi- 
tions in  the  flock  and  the  season  are  constantly  changing.  Cor- 
responding changes  in  the  ration  and  methods  of  feeding  should 
be  made  to  maintain  a  uniform  condition  in  health,  weight,  and 
productivity. 

Grit,  Shell,  Charcoal,  and  Salt. — In  addition  to  the  rations 
containing  the  right  amounts  of  nutrients,  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
before  the  birds  at  all  times  a  hopper  •  containing  crushed  grit. 
This  is  needed  to  enable  the  birds  properly  to  grind  and  digest  the 
grains  fed.  The  function  of  the  grit  is  to  act  as  "  teeth,"  and  should 
be  extremely  hard  and  angular.  As  a  rule,  it  is  found  unnecessary 
to  supply  grit  often  when  the  birds  have  free  range. 

Crushed  oyster  shells  should  always  be  available  to  the  birds 
to  furnish  the  lime  necessary  to  form  the  shell  of  the  newly 
formed  eggs. 

Powdered  or  crushed  charcoal  is  also  very  desirable,  as  it  acts 
as  a  cleanser  or  purifier,  cleansing  the  system  and  keeping  the 
birds  in  good  condition.  It  is  also  rich  in  mineral  matter.  It  may 
be  mixed  with  the  dry  mash  in  self-feeding  hoppers  or  fed  in 
separate  hoppers.  It  can  profitably  be  used  at  the  rate  of  five 
per  cent  by  weight  in  the  mash,  but  less  than  this  is  common. 

Salt  added  to  the  ration  in  limited  amounts  increases  pala- 
tability,  and  hence  induces  the  birds  to  eat  it  more  readily.  Its 
use  in  large  quantities  is  detrimental. 

SYSTEM   OF   FEEDING. 

A  great  many  general  systems  are  practised  in  poultry  feed- 
ing, many  of  which  contain  good  points,  many  bad.  The  best 
system  to  use  in  any  case  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  object 


SYSTEM  OF  FEEDING  213 

sought.  All  systems  have  been  analyzed  carefully  and  will  fall 
under  one  of  the  four  following  combinations:  (1)  Trough  feeding 
of  wet  mash;  (2)  hopper  feeding  of  dry  mash;  (3)  scratch  feeding 
of  cracked  grains;  (4)  hopper  feeding  of  cracked  grains. 

Combinations  of  two  or  more  of  these  are  often  used,  and 
undoubtedly  give  better  results  than  the  exclusive  use  of  any 
one  alone. 

Trough  Feeding  of  Wet  Mash.— This  system  is  recommended 
for  use  where  a  small  number  of  birds  is  to  be  fed,  and  only  when 
it  is  possible  to  devote  considerable  time  and  attention  to  them. 
It  may  also  be  used  when  it  is  desired  for  some  reason  to  force  for 
an  increased  production,  as  in  the  case  of  adult  birds  which  are 
laying  poorly;  to  hasten  maturity,  as  in  the  case  of  late-hatched 
pullets;  during  very  cold  winter  weather,  when  it  is  desired  to 
give  the  birds  increased  warmth  by  feeding  thorn  mashes  mixed 
with  hot  water;  it  is  also  recommended  for  fattening  purposes, 
especially  for  the  finishing  period. 

Advantages. — When  care  is  used  and  this  ration  is  fed  properly, 
it  is  probably  a  little  more  productive  of  results,  as  the  birds  are 
induced  to  eat  more. 

Disadvantages. — More  labor  is  required  in  mixing  and  feeding; 
if  not  fed  with  a  great  deal  of  care,  and  if  allowed  to  become  sour 
or  moldy,  it  may  produce  indigestion  and  diarrhoea.  If  the 
troughs  are  not  very  large,  it  does  not  give  each  bird  an  equal 
chance.  This  method  requires  constant  attention  to  the  details 
of  feeding,  careful  watching  of  the  condition  of  the  birds,  and  the 
practising  of  absolute  cleanliness. 

General  Usage. — This  method  is  usually  practised  on  small 
farms  where  flocks  are  small,  and  where  there  is  sufficient  time  for 
the  feeder  to  do  the  work  properly.  It  is  sometimes  used  on  large 
plants  in  connection  with  dry  mash  during  the  winter.  It  is  always 
practised  in  the  fattening  of  poultry. 

Hopper  Feeding  of  Dry  Mash. — This  method  is  one  of  the 
best  in  the  feeding  of  large  flocks  when  it  is  desired  to  lessen  the 
amount  of  labor,  and  especially  in  feeding  concentrated  parts  of 
the  ration  to  laying  hens.  One  important  factor  in  the  hopper 
feeding  of  dry  mash  is  that  a  successful  hopper  be  used.  The 
essential  factors  of  a  desirable  hopper  are  given  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Advantages. — When  dry  mash  is  fed  in  the  right  kind  of  a 
hopper,  it  saves  much  labor.  The  diet  itself  is  very  helpful  from 
the  standpoint  of  digestion.  It  does  not  require  such  careful 


214  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

study  or  attention  on  the  part  of  the  feeder,  and  it  allows  the  birds 
themselves  a  greater  freedom  in  arranging  and  balancing  their 
own  diet.  It  also  allows  of  perfect  cleanliness  in  feeding. 

Disadvantages. — This  method  is  wasteful  if  not  fed  in  the  cor- 
rect type  of  hopper;  for  this  reason  great  care  should  be  us*ed  in 
the  making  or  selection  of  a  hopper.  In  some  instances  it  has 
been  noted  that  birds,  not  accustomed  to  dry-mash  feeding  for 
a  considerable  period,  eat  very  little,  and  do  not  relish  what 
they  do  eat.  This  can  usually  be  corrected  gradually,  and  at  an 
early  age. 

General  Usage. — This  system  is  in  general  use  on  large  com- 
mercial plants.  In  most  cases  it  is  used  to  supplement  the  feeding 
of  cracked  grains  in  litter.  It  has  supplemented  or  almost  entirely 
taken  the  place  of  wet-mash  feeding  on  all  egg  farms. 

Scratch  Feeding  of  Ground  Grains. — This  method  of  feeding  is 
very  profitably  used  to  supplement  the  feeding  of  dry  or  wet 
mashes.  It  may  also  be  used  as  an  exclusive  ration  when  birds 
show  excessive  gain  in  weight,  as  it  induces  a  larger  amount  of 
exercise.  When  it  is  desired  to  check  maturity,  this  method  is 
sometimes  employed.  To  get  the  greatest  benefit,  the  grains 
should  be  scattered  in  some  good  scratching  material  which  should 
be  clean  and  dry  and  four  or  more  inches  deep.  It  should  be  coarse 
enough  to  hide  the  feed,  but  not  so  coarse  or  bulky  that  the  birds 
cannot  move  it  by  scratching  to  find  the  grains.  Materials  often 
used  for  this  purpose  are  straw,  shavings,  cut  corn  fodder,  and  dry 
leaves. 

Advantages. — There  are  several  advantages  of  this  system  of 
scratch  feeding.  It  induces  the  birds  to  exercise,  thus  increasing 
circulation  and  keeping  up  vigor.  It  also  keeps  them  in  good  flesh, 
especially  in  the  case  of  old  hens,  by  not  allowing  them  to  get  too 
fat.  It  enables  the  attendant  to  study  the  condition  of  the  birds. 
Considerable  labor  is  required  in  feeding  by  this  method,  but  the 
general  practice  of  cutting  down  labor  can  be  carried  to  an  extreme 
by  the  use  of  too  many  automatic  or  labor-saving  devices.  This 
daily  feeding  of  grain  in  litter  offers  one  of  the  general  methods 
whereby  the  feeder  can  keep  in  touch  with  his  flock. 

Disadvantages. — During  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the  litter 
may  get  damp  and  moldy.  After  drying,  dust  is  increased  in 
the  house  while  the  birds  are  scratching,  and  this  is  apt  to  cause 
the  development  of  certain  fungous  diseases.  This  trouble  can  be 
avoided  by  the  use  of  clean,  sweet  litter. 


SYSTEM  OF  FEEDING  215 

General  Usage. — Scratch  feeding  is  used  to  supplement  dry- 
mash  feeding  on  large  utility  plants,  and  nearly  every  such  flock 
of  adult  birds  in  the  entire  country  is  fed  at  some  time  of  the  day 
by  this  system. 

Hopper  Feeding  of  Cracked  Grains. — In  some  cases  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  secure  good  litter  for  the  floor  of  the  house,  or  it  is  desired 
to  reduce  labor  of  daily  feeding;  then  it  may  be  well  to  use  large 
hoppers  for  feeding  of  cracked  or  whole  grains.  For  growing  chicks 
on  the  range,  the  feeding  of  cracked  grains  from  self-feeding  hoppers 
is  a  very  common  and  efficient  practice,  greatly  reducing  the  labor 
and  increasing  efficiency. 

The  advantages  attendant  on  this  method  are  the  reduction  of 
the  labor  item;  and,  where  no  litter  is  present,  it  causes  the  birds 
to  exercise  to  a  limited  extent. 

Disadvantages. — Hoppers  used  for  this  purpose  are  usually  of 
commercial  types,  and  it  is  found  in  actual  practice  that 
they  do  not  always  work  properly,  which  results  in  the  birds 
being  neglected.  In  some  cases  they  feed  too  abundantly.  It 
eliminates  almost  entirely  the  personal  attention  of  the  poultry- 
man,  which  is  so  essential.  It  does  not  provide  enough  physical 
exercise. 

General  Usage. — This  system  is  rarely  used  with  laying  stock, 
but  is  quite  generally  used  on  the  range  in  the  rearing  of  the  grow- 
ing chicks.  It  is  sometimes  used  on  utility  plants  to  supplement 
the  night  feeding  of  cracked  grains  in  litter. 

The  Best  System. — For  the  average  laying  flock  the  best  system 
to  follow,  both  winter  and  summer,  is  a  combination  of  scratch 
feeding  of  cracked  grains  in  deep  litter  at  night,  and  the  hopper 
feeding  of  dry  mash.  This  requires  the  least  amount  of  labor 
consistent  with  the  greatest  efficiency  and  the  proper  personal 
attention. 

Simple  Laying  Rations. — Only  laying  rations  will  be  discussed 
in  this  case.  Rations  for  other  purposes  are  given  in  the  chapters 
that  deal  with  those  particular  phases  of  the  work. 

New  Jersey  Rations. — The  following  is  the  New  Jersey  dry 
mash,  with  the  supplemental  rations  which  are  designed  for  the 
complete  feeding  of  laying  hens  throughout  the  winter  and  the 
modifications  necessary  for  summer  feeding. 

The  quality  of  the  different  brands  of  meat  scrap  is  very  vari- 
able, and  should  ^a  lower  grade  with  less  protein  and  more  fat  be 
used  it  would  raise  the  nutritive  ratio  slightly. 


216 


PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 


This  mash  is  kept  before  the  birds  all  the  time  in  large  self- 
feeding  hoppers. 

TABLE  XL — Dry  Mash,  Mixture  No.  1. 


Kind  of  feed, 

Amount    Amount 
by               by 
weight,     measure. 

| 

Dry 

matter. 

Ash  or 
mineral 
matter. 

Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
plus  fat 
x2M 

Cost. 
(1913). 

Lbs. 

Qls. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Wheat  bran  

200 

380 

176.0 

11.6 

24.2 

90.6 

$3.20 

Wheat  middlings 

200 

240 

176.0 

7.6 

2o!6 

121.4 

3.50 

Ground  oats  

200 

200 

178.0 

6.0 

18.4 

113.6 

3.30 

Corn  meal  

100 

95 

89.0 

1.5 

7.9 

76.4 

1.65 

Gluten  meal..  .  .  . 

100 

80 

92.0' 

.8    - 

25.8 

65.6 

1.70 

Meat  scrap,  high 

grade  

100 

86 

39.3 

4.1 

66.2 

31.1 

3.00 

Alfalfa,  cut  short 

100 

200 

92.0 

7.4 

11.0 

42.3 

1.60 

Total  

1,000 

1,281 

892.3 

39.0 

179.1 

541.0 

17.95 

Average  to  pound 



1.28 

.892 

.039 

.179 

.541 

.018 

Nutritive  ratio,  1  :  3.02. 


The  above  dry  mash  is  designed  especially  for  the  feeding  of 
White  Leghorns.  Where  heavier  breeds  are  kept,  such  as  Plymouth 
Rocks  or  Wyandottes,  the  tendency  will  be  to  take  on  an  excess 
of  fat.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  the  best  policy  to  restrict  the 
amount  of  mash  eaten  by  leaving  the  hopper  open  during  the 
afternoon  only,  thus  inducing  the  birds  to  work  more  for  the  grain 
fed  in  the  litter. 

During  the  molting  season,  or  in  the  months  of  July,  August, 
and  September,  oil  meal  is  substituted  /or  the  gluten  in  the  same 
proportion,  to  hasten  the  growth  of  feathers.  In  the  spring,  as 
soon  as  the  birds  get  out  on  green  grass,  the  alfalfa  can  be  gradually 
omitted.  Meat  scrap  is  gradually  reduced  in  amount  as  soon  as 
the  birds  get  out  on  free  range  and  can  find  insects  and  worms. 
The  extent  to  which  the  above  mash  can  be  changed  or  reduced 
during  summer  will  depend  upon  the  character  and  amount  of 
range  which  the  birds  have  during  that  time. 

The  following  modification  of  the  New  Jersey  dry  mash  is  very 
economical  for  summer  feeding,  the  change  from  one  to  the  other 
being  made  gradually  as  soon  as  the  birds  are  on  free  range  with 
plenty  of  forage : 


SYSTEM  OF  FEEDING 
TABLE  XII.— Summer  Dry  Mash,  Mixture  No.  1A. 


217 


Kind  of  feed. 

Amount 
by 
weight. 

Amount 
by 
measure. 

Dry 

matter. 

Ash  or 
mineral 
matter. 

Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
plus  fat 
x2>i 

Cost. 
(1913). 

Wheat  bran  
Wheat  middlings 
Ground  oats.  .  ... 
Gluten  meal  
Meat  scrap  

Lbs. 
200 
100 
100 
50 
25 

Qts. 

380 
120 
100 
40 
21 

Lbs. 

176.0 
88.0 
89.0 
46.0 
22.3 

Lbs. 

11.6 
3.8 
3.0 
.4 
1.0 

Lbs. 
24.2 
12.8 
9.2 
12.9 
16.5 

Lbs. 
90.6 
60.7 
56.8 
32.8 
8.0 

$3.20 
1.75 
1.65 
.85 
.75 

Total  
Average  to  pound 

475 

661 
1  39 

421.3 

887 

19.8 
04 

75.6 
158 

248.9 
524 

8.20 
017 

Nutritive  ratio,  1  :  3.22. 

As  supplemental  to  the  dry  mash,  the  following  scratching 
ration  of  whole  grain  is  fed  about  9  o'clock  every  morning  in  deep 
litter.  Its  primary  object,  aside  from  its  nutritive  value,  is  to 
induce  exercise.  About  five  pounds  of  the  scratching  ration  is  fed 
to  each  100  birds  on  the  floor  of  the  house  or  under  some  shelter, 
where  the  litter  is  dry  and  where  there  is  protection  from  cold 
winds. 

TABLE  XIII. — Scratching  Ration,  Mixture  No.  2. 


Kind  of  feed. 

Amount 
by 
weight. 

Amount 
by 

measure. 

Dry 

matter. 

Ash  or 
mineral 
matter. 

i 

.Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
plus  fat 
x2^. 

Cost. 
(1913). 

Wheat  

Lbs. 
100 

Qts. 

53 

Lbs. 

90 

Lbs. 
1.8 

Lbs. 
10.2 

Lbs. 

73.0 

$2.20 

Clipped  oats  

100 

98 

89 

3.0 

9.2 

56.8 

1.93 

Total  

200 

151 

179 

4.8 

19.4 

129.8 

4.13 

Average  to  pound 

.755 

.839 

.024 

.097 

.649 

.0206 

Nutritive  ratio,  1  :  6.6. 

In  the  afternoon,  about  four  or  five  o'clock,  depending  on  the 
season,  a  "  night  ration  "  is  fed,  composed  of  whole  grains  and 
cracked  grains  at  the  rate  of  ten  pounds  to  each  100  birds. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  manner  of  feeding  gives  to  the  birds 
the  materials  suitable  for  supplying  the  heat  to  the  body  during 


218 


PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 


the  night.  The  night  ration  given  is  designed  for  White  Leghorns; 
when  feeding  heavier  breeds,  it  is  better  to  eliminate  one-half  of 
the  cracked  corn  and  to  substitute  barley  for  the  buckwheat.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  months  a  night  ration  of  equal  rjarts  of  cracked 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  is  given,  the  amount  depending  on 
the  size  and  condition  of  the  range. 

TABLE  XIV. — Night  Ration,  Mixture  No.  3. 


Kind  of  feed. 

Amount 
by 
weight. 

Amount 
by 
measure. 

Dry 

matter. 

Ash  or 
mineral 
matter. 

Protein. 

hydrates 
plus  fat 

Cost. 
(1913). 

Lbs. 

Qts. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cracked  corn.  .  .  . 

200 

120 

178 

3.0 

15.8 

152.8 

$3.30 

Wheat  

100 

53 

90 

1.8 

10.2 

73.0 

2.20 

Clipped  oats  
Buckwheat  

100 
100 

98 
66 

89 

87 

3.0 
2.0 

9.2 

7.7 

56.8 
53.3 

1.93 
2.00 

Total  

500 

337 

444 

9.8 

42.9 

335.9 

9.43 

Average  to  pound 



.674 

.888 

.019 

.085 

.671 

.018 

Nutritive  ratio,  1  :  7.8. 

A  good  rule  in  feeding  the  night  ration  is  to  feed  all  that  the 
birds  will  eat,  or  rather  more,  so  as  to  have  a  little  left  for  them 
to  go  to  work  on  in  the  morning.  A  good  feeder  will  occasionally 
go  among  the  birds  at  night  when  they  are  on  the  perches  and  feel 
their  crops.  If  they  are  not  full  early  in  the  evening,  he  will  con- 
clude that  either  the  layers  are  not  getting  enough  or  that  they 
have  lost  their  appetite.  In  either  case,  the  defect  should  be  imme- 
diately corrected. 

Twenty  birds,  if  fed  dry  mash  and  scratch  feed,  will  receive 
during  the  winter  months  the  following  nutrients  per  day: 


Lbs. 
8.0 


Protein. 
1.1 


C.H.  plus  fat. 
4.87 


Cost. 
$0.14 


The  yearly  cost  of  feed  averages  about  $1.40  per  bird. 

The  feeding  of  some  succulent  material  in  addition  to  this 
ration  cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended. 

Cornell  Rations. — The  following  complete  rations  for  laying 
hens  are  recommended  by  the  poultry  department  of  Cornell 
University. 

"The  fowls  should  eat  about  one-half  as  much  mash  by  weight  as  whole 
grain.  Regulate  the  proportion  of  grain  and  ground  feed  by  giving  a  light 
feeding  of  grain  in  the  morning  and  about  all  they  will  consume  at  the  after- 


SYSTEM  OF  FEEDING  219 

TABLE  XV.— Whole-Grain  Mixture  fed  Morning  and  Afternoon  in  Litter. 


By  weight, 
winter. 

By  measure; 
winter. 

By  weight, 
summer. 

By  measure, 
summer. 

60  Ibs.  wheat 
60  Ibs.  corn 
30  Ibs.  oats 
30  Ibs.  buckwheat 

32  qts.  wheat 
36  qts.  corn 
30  qts.  oats 
20  qts.  buckwheat 

60  Ibs.  wheat 
60  Ibs.  corn 
30  Ibs.  oats 

32  qts.  wheat 
36  qts.  corn 
30  qts.  oats 

TABLE  XVI. — Dry  Mash  fed  in  a  Hopper,  open  Afternoons  only. 


By  weight,  winter  and  summer. 


60  Ibs.  corn  meal 
60  Ibs.  wheat  middlings 
30  Ibs.  wheat  bran 
10  Ibs.  alfalfa  meal 
10  Ibs.  oil  meal 
50  Ibs.  beef  scrap 
1  Ib.  salt 


By  measure,  winter  and  summer. 


57  qts.  corn  meal 
71  qts.  wheat  middlings 
57  qts.  wheat  bran 
20  qts.  alfalfa  meal 

8  qts.  oil  meal 
43  qts.  beef  scrap 
l/i    t.  salt 


noon  feeding  (in  time  to  find  grain  before  dark).  In  the  case  of  pullets  or 
fowls  in  heavy  laying,  restrict  both  night  and  morning  feeding  to  induce 
heavy  eating  of  dry  mash,  especially  in  the  case  of  hens.  This  ration  should 
be  supplemented  with  beets,  cabbage,  sprouted  oats,  green  clover,  or  other 
succulent  feed,  unless  running  on  grass-covered  range.  Grit,  cracked  oyster 
shell,  and  charcoal  should  be  accessible  at  all  times.  Green  feed  should  not 
be  fed  in  a  frozen  condition.  All  feed  and  litter  used  should  be  strictly  sweet, 
clean,  and  free  from  mustiness,  mold,  or  decay.  Serious  losses  frequently 
occur  from  disease,  due  to  the  fowls  taking  into  their  bodies,  through  their 
intestinal  tract  or  lungs,  the  spores  of  molds." 

California  Rations. — The  following  are  two  dry-mash  formulas 
recommended  by  the  California  Station:  "They  are  calculated 
for  100  hens  a  day.  and  if  fed  with  nine  to  twelve  pounds  of  grain, 
according  to  weight  of  hens,  and  some  green  stuff,  they  will  form 
a  well-balanced  ration.  The  mash  may  be  fed  wet  or  dry." 


Quarts. 

Bran 6.0 

Middlings 5 

Linseed  meal  O.  P.  .    .5 

Gluten  feed 8 

Ground  oats 1.0 

Corn  meal 1.5 

Beef  scrap 1 .0 

Coarse  bone  meal. .  .0.5 


Pounds. 

3.0 

.5 

.5 
1.0 

.75 
2.25 
1.50 
1.00 


Quarts.    Pounds. 


Bran 4.0 

Alfalfa  meal 1.0 

Corn  meal 1 .0 

Shorts 2.0 

Barley  meal 1.0 

Ground  beans 1.0 

Beef  scrap 1.0 

Coarse  bone  meal 5 


2.0 

.5 

1.5 

1.5 

1.1 

1.1 

.5 

1.0 


220  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

"Salt  should  be  added  to  every  mash,  about  an  ounce  being  sufficient. 
Pepper  may  be  added  occasionally.  Fresh  lean  meat  may  be  substituted 
for  beef  scrap  in  any  of  the  formulas,  three  quarts  of  the  fresh  being  equal  to 
one  of  the  dried.  Cottage  cheese  may  be  substituted  in  the  same  proportion, 
except  that  it  is  advisable  not  to  replace  all  of  the  meat,  one-half  quart  beef 
scrap  and  one  and  a  half  quarts  cottage  cheese  being  a  much  better  proportion. 
The  equivalent  in  pounds  is  given  for  convenience  in  ordering.  The  quarts 
represent  the  amount  for  100  hens  and  may  be  multiplied  or  divided  ad 
libitum." 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  points  to  consider  in  the  location  of  the  feed  house. 

2.  Give  two  important  points  in  the  design  of  the  feed  house. 

3.  Give  the  special  equipment  necessary  to  equip  the  feed  room  properly. 

4.  Define  ration.     What  does  it  include? 

5.  Tell  of  the  necessity  of  having  sufficient  nutrients  in  a  ration. 

6.  Why  is  a  certain  proportion  with  respect  to  nutrients  necessary? 

7.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  nutritive  ratio?     Give  example. 

8.  What  is  potential  energy  as  related  to  feeds?     How  can  it  be  quickly 

determined? 

9.  Define  balanced  ration. 

10.  Discuss  the  need  of  succulence  in  a  ration. 

1 1 .  What  is  the  effect  of  varying  degrees  of  palatability? 

12.  Discuss  bulkiness  in  poultry  rations. 

13.  What  is  meant  by  an  economical  ration? 

14.  Explain  how  to  find  the  cost  price  of  a  pound  of  protein  in  any  purchased 

feed.     Give  examples. 

15.  How  does  ease  of  mixing  and  storing  affect  the  economy  of  feeding? 

16.  Of  what  use  is  personal  attention  in  feeding? 

17.  Enumerate  the  functions  of  grit,  shell,  charcoal,  and  salt. 

18.  Mention  four  systems  of  poultry  feeding. 

19.  Discuss  possibilities  and  usage  of  each  of  the  four  systems. 

20.  Give  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each. 

21.  Outline  the  best  combination  of  these  systems. 

22.  Outline  a  complete  system  of  feeding  laying  hens. 

23.  Give  the  rations  and  amounts  for  one  of  the  States  mentioned  in  this 

chapter. 

References. — Four  Methods  of  Feeding  Early  Hatched  Pullets,  by  James 
E.  Rice,  Cornell  Bulletin  249.  Feeding  for  Eggs,  by  James  Dryden,  Oregon 
Reading  Course,  Lesson  3.  Feeding  for  Egg  Production,  by  J.  S.  Jeffrey, 
North  Carolina  Bulletin  211.  Feeding  for  Winter  Eggs,  Pennsylvania  Exten- 
sion Circular  11.  Feeding  Laying  Hens,  by  James  E.  Rice,  Cornell  Reading 
Course,  Bulletin  17.  Rations  for  Poultry,  by  James  E.  Rice,  Cornell  Reading 
Course,  Bulletin  18.  Forcing  the  Moult,  by  Stewart  and  Atwood,  West 
Virginia  Bulletin  83.  Methods  of  Feeding  Poultry,  in  the  United  States 
Farmers'  Bulletin  244.  The  Forced  Moulting  of  Fowls,  in  United  States 
Farmers'  Bulletin  412. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING. 

Poultry  Breeding.— By  poultry  breeding  is  meant  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  reproduction  and  improvement  of  the  domestic 
fowl.  It  may  be  said  to  be  both  a  science  and  an  art.  It  is  truly 
a  science  in  so  far  as  it  deduces  and  systematically  applies  facts 
and  principles  as  they  are  demonstrated.  It  is  an  art  in  so  much 
as  the  knowledge  and  experience  thus  acquired  and  the  principles 
deduced  may  be  utilized  for  the  continued  improvement  of  the 
animals. 

A  few  and  rather  hazy  suggestions  pertaining  to  the  improve- 
ment of  fowls  have  been  handed  down  from  remote  ages,  but  most 
of  the  earlier  work  on  animal  breeding  was  carried  on  with  larger 
and  more  easily  recorded  domestic  animals.  In  recent  years  many 
of  the  principles  which  govern  successful  breeding  have  become 
better  understood,  and  the  knowledge  obtained  has  been  more 
thoroughly  disseminated  than  ever  before,  largely  owing  to  the 
fact  that  experiment  stations  are  making  a  special  study  of  this 
science,  and  in  many  instances  are  using  poultry  as  the  studv 
medium.  As  a  rule,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  laws  of  breeding 
which  apply  to  all  animals  are  equally  applicable  to  poultry. 

Breeding  a  Complex  Problem. — Breeding  is  not  an  art  which 
can  be  learned  entirely  from  books  or  from  the  study  of  results 
obtained  by  a  few  crossings  or  matings;  it  is  acquired  by  experi- 
ence and  by  the  actual  study  of  the  progeny  resulting  from  such 
matings,  generation  after  generation,  and  in  large  numbers. 

To  be  successful,  one  must  be  familiar  with  the  subject  from 
both  points  of  view,  theoretical  and  practical.  It  is  impossible 
to  apply  principles  to  a  profitable  use  until  they  are  thoroughly 
understood.  These  scientific  principles  have,  in  great  measure, 
been  derived  directly  from  the  methods  of  the  more  successful 
breeders,  and  hence  are  fundamental. 

Need  of  Improvement. — The  improvement  of  the  flocks  of 
poultry  which  are  found  in  greater  or  less  numbers  on  practically 
all  American  farms  has  not  received  the  attention  which  it  merits, 
and  which  the  results  from  such  improvement  would  warrant.  The 
breeding  of  poultry  in  a  practical  way  has  been  left  almost  entirely 

221 


222 


PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 


to  the  fancier,  who  keeps  a  smaller  number  of  birds  and  aims  to 
secure  color  pattern  rather  than  utility  qualities.  This  tendency 
is  changing  in  recent  years,  and  the  value  of  well-bred  birds  for 
egg  production  and  market  poultry  is  becoming  better  appreciated. 

The  chief  reason  for  the  lack  of  interest  in  the  improvement 
of  poultry  has  been  the  fact  that  most  farmers  regard  the  raising 
of  poultry  as  a  side  issue,  and  hence  give  it  little  consideration. 
Another  cause  is  the  erroneous  view  which  many  farmers  take  in 
regarding  the  value  of  the  products,  and  the  possibilities  offered 
through  study  and  improvement,  as  matters  entirely  too  small  to 
deserve  attention. 

Many  of  our  most  successful  keepers  still  believe  that  improve- 
ment can  best  be  brought  about  through  feeding,  and  that  selec- 
tion, when  practised,  is  not  rigid  enough  or  along  the  lines  which 
would  insure  direct  improvement. 

The  birds  of  any  poultry  flock,  wherever  kept  for  profit, 
should  be  considered  and  treated  as  machines, — living  machines, 
which,  when  given  raw  material  in  the  form  of  feed,  will  transform 
it  into  finished  agricultural  products,  such  as  eggs  and  meat. 
These  manufactured  products  represent  great  value  in  small 
bulk,  and  can  be  shipped  great  distances  at  little  cost.  In  the 
production  of  market  eggs  this  concentration  of  the  finished  product 
is  very  noticeable.  One  dozen  eggs  weighing  about  twenty-four 
ounces  (1^2  Ibs.)  contain  more  human  food  material  than  the 
same  weight  of  milk. 

TABLE  XVII. — Composition  of  Eggs  Compared  with  Milk. 


24  ounces 
(1%  Ib.) 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Dry  matter. 

Lbs. 

0.99 

Lbs. 

0.18 

Lbs. 

0.16 

Lbs. 

0.00 

Lbs. 
0.12 

Lbs. 

0.46 

Milk     

1.30 

.01 

.05 

.07 

.05 

.18 

If  the  domestic  hen  is  to  be  considered  as  a  machine,  and  if 
the  most  profitable  returns  are  to  be  realized  from  her,  this  machine 
must  be  carefully  selected,  and  trained  to  the  highest  degree  of 
efficiency.  If  a  bird  of  a  certain  type  will  lay  more  eggs  in  a  year, 
of  larger  and  more  uniform  size  than  another  bird,  and  meet  all 
the  requirements  of  the  egg  market,  this  type  should  be  given  the 
preference  by  egg  producers.  Again,  if  one  type  or  breed  of  birds 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  POULTRY  BREEDER  223 

produces  more  and  better  flesh  in  a  given  time,  hence  yielding  a 
larger  return  when  put  on  the  market,  this  particular  type  should 
be  selected  and  improved  for  market  poultry. 

The  aim  should  be  to  choose  the  type  of  machine  best  adapted 
to  the  desired  purpose;  then,  by  breeding  and  selection,  to  develop 
this  machine  into  the  most  economical  transformer  of  raw  material 
into  the  desired  product  that  it  is  possible  to  secure. 

Great  Aim  in  Poultry  Breeding. — The  foremost  aim  in  poultry 
breeding  should  be  the  improvement  of  poultry  in  those  qualities 
which  have  a  definite  market  value;  as,  increased  egg  production, 
quality  and  quantity  of  flesh  growth,  and  perfection  of  color  pat- 
tern. All  these  qualities  are  associated  more  or  less  with  perfection 
of  proportion  or  symmetry  of  the  individual,  and  any  improvement 
which  is  continuous  and  which  progresses  toward  a  given  ideal 
will  materially  improve  the  general  appearance  of  the  progeny 
and  conduce  to  uniformity. 

Problems  of  the  Poultry  Breeder. — There  are  certain  questions 
which  stand  out  clearly  before  the  mind  of  a  practical  breeder  and 
represent  the  problems  which  he  must  attempt  to  master.  With 
our  present  limited  knowledge  many  of  them  cannot  be  definitely 
answered,  yet  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  problems  involved  will 
lead  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  subject  and  make  possible 
a  systematic  plan.  These  problems  may  be  grouped  as  follows: 

1.  To  what  extent  are  the  characteristics  of  the  particular 
individual  at  maturity  due  to  its  ancestry  or  heredity,  and  to  what 
extent  are  they  due  to  environmental  conditions,  such  as  feed, 
climate,  and  housing? 

2.  What  is  the  exact  appearance  which  inherited  characteristics 
assume  when  transmitted  to  future  generations? 

3.  May  characteristics  of  the  individual  due  to  environment 
be  transmitted? 

4.  What  are  the  possibilities  of  controlling  variation  through 
selection? 

5.  Does  improvement  in  egg  production  come  about  by  raising 
the  standard  absolutely,  or  is  the  general  average  raised  by  elimi- 
nating the  poorer  producers?    That  is,  is  it  possible  to  improve 
the  best,  or  must  the  mass  be  brought  up  to  a  higher  level? 

6.  What  are  the  proper  standards  in  selecting  for  a  definite 
purpose? 

7.  To  what  extent  can  individual  performance  be  made  the 

basis  for  selection? 


224  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

8.  What  is  the  relative  influence  of  sire  and  dam  upon  trans- 
mitted characteristics, — say  in  egg  production? 

9.  To  what  extent  does  the  condition  of  parents  at  the  time  of 
service  affect  the  offspring? 

10.  To  what  extent  may  conditions  previous  to  and  during 
incubation  affect  the  offspring? 

11.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  inbreeding, 
line  breeding,  and  out-crossing? 

12.  How  can  definite  and  practical  results  be  secured  with  the 
least  expenditure  of  time  and  numbers? 

Upon  the  answers  to  many  of  these  problems  depend  the  future 
methods  of  poultry  breeding.  Our  information  is  complete  on 
many  points,  yet  other  scientific  knowledge  is  wanting.  Much 
labor  is  being  expended  in  the  solving  of  these  problems;  mean- 
while the  breeder  must  utilize  the  material  at  hand  as  best  he  may. 
The  summary  following  in  this  chapter  will,  in  a  general  way,  cover 
the  present  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Basis  of  Value  in  Poultry. — The  basis  of  value  in  poultry  keep- 
ing is  the  power  of  the  individual  to  produce  a  given  product  at 
a  profit.  The  relative  value  of  the  individual  depends  upon  its 
adaptation  to  one  or  more  particular  uses  and  the  returns  which 
it  yields  above  the  feed  consumed.  For  example,  the  best  laying 
hen  is  the  one  which  converts  the  largest  amount  of  feed  into  eggs 
of  the  best  quality  with  the  least  possible  waste  of  the  feed  con- 
sumed. While  a  large  consumption  of  feed  is  necessary  to  heavy 
production,  it  is  not  in  itself  a  guarantee  of  heavy  production. 
The  mongrel  hen  is  often  a  heavy  consumer  of  feed;  but,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  her  bodily  functions  are  not  developed  sufficiently 
to  turn  every  atom  of  feed  not  required  for  maintenance  into  eggs, 
she  does  not  yield  a  profit.  A  certain  amount  of  feed  is  required 
to  maintain  the  body,  and  observation  proves  that  the  individual 
which  consumes  the  most  feed  in  proportion  to  its  live  weight  will, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  be  the  most  profitable;  hence  the  necessity 
of  studying  individuals  closely,  and  breeding  from  those  which 
possess  the  qualities  to  be  desired  in  their  young. 

The  records  of  a  few  noted  hens  show  what  breeding  and  selec- 
tion will  do;  and  also  show  that  in  order  to  increase  the  productive, 
or  basic,  value  of  poultry,  one  must  study  the  individuality  of  his 
flock,  and  mate  from  the  very  best,  with  the  idea  of  eliminating 
the  poorer  birds  and  of  intensifying  in  the  progeny  the  desired 
qualities  which  are  pronounced  in  the  selected  parents. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  225 

/ 

Fundamental  Principles. — As  a  science,  breeding  is  both  com- 
plex and  varied.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  obscurity  surrounding 
many  of  the  phenomena,  and  to  the  great  degree  of  variation  in 
results  obtained  under  apparently  the  same  conditions,  also  in  part 
to  the  influence  which  the  purity  of  the  individual  exerts,  as  shown 
in  the  results  of  future  transmission. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  science 
of  breeding,  the  complete  understanding  of  which  is  essential  to 
success  in  practical  breeding,  are  few  in  number,  and  readily  under- 
stood. These  principles  are  as  follows: 

1.  Decide  upon  a  standard  of  excellence,  which  may  be  either 
real  or  imaginary,  and  always  breed  toward  it. 

2.  Always  breed  from  parents  both  of  whom  conform  as  closely 
as  possible  to  this  standard. 

3.'  Always  breed  from  parents  which  are  as  purely  bred  as  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  them, — that  is,  birds  which  have  long  been 
bred  without  the  addition  of  alien  blood. 

4.  Study  the  individuals,  and  endeavor  to  mate  them  so  that 
the  faults  of  the  parents  will  be  corrected  in  the  offspring. 

5.  Practise  a  rigorous  selection  from  hatching  time  to  maturity, 
and  especially  when  mating  the  breeding  hens. 

6.  Always  consider  environment,  such, as  housing  and  feeding 
conditions. 

Breeding  toward  a  standard  of  excellence  gives  the  breeder  a 
guide  by  means  of  which  he  can  frequently  estimate  his  progress. 
By  following  this  guide  without  deviation  definite  results  may  be 
much  more  quickly  attained.  The  standard  may  be  written  or  it 
may  be  carried  in  the  mind  of  the  one  engaged  in  breeding.  In 
the  former  case,  one  prepared  by  an  association  is  generally  used. 
At  the  present  time  the  American  Poultry  Association  publishes 
the  "  American  Standard  of  Perfection,"  in  which  are  given  the 
requirements  of  all  standard-bred  poultry.  In  the  absence  of  this 
standard  the  high  excellence  and  uniformity  now  attained,  as  seen 
at  the  large  poultry  shows,  would  be  impossible. 

The  necessity  of  breeding  only  from  parents  which  conform  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  the  standard  is  based  on  the  law  of  heredity 
that  like  produces  like,  and  that,  in  order  to  secure  a  given  progeny, 
the  more  nearly  the  parents  conform  to  the  standard  the  greater 
are  the  chances  that  the  offspring  will  develop  the  desired  qualities. 

The  study  of  the  science  of  breeding  has  shown  that  with  an 
increased  admixture  of  alien  or  foreign  blood  there  is  always  a  pro- 

15 


226  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

portionately  greater  variation  in  the  transmitted  qualities;  hence 
the  necessity  of  breeding  from  parents  as  purely  bred  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  obtain  them.  By  eliminating  alien  blood  the  desired  prop- 
erties become  dominant,  so  to  speak ;  that  is,  they  become  intensi- 
fied, and  there  are  fewer  contending  characteristics  to  crowd  them 
out.  The  longer  a  family  of  individuals  can  be  bred  purely,  so 
much  more  powerful  will  its  dominant  traits  become.  (The  mating 
and  selection  of  individuals  is  discussed  in  the  next  chapter.) 

The  influence  of  environment  on  future  generations  is  im- 
portant. All  conditions  and  operations  included  in  the  care 
and  management  of  birds  will  more  or  less  influence  the  indi- 
vidual, and  also  leave  their  mark  upon  the  offspring;  lack  of 
proper  environment  may  tear  down  and  soon  destroy  all  that  has 
been  accomplished  by  years  of  hard  work  in  selection  and  breed- 
ing ;  hence  the  necessity  of  understanding  the  natural  requirements 
of  the  birds  before  practising  or  experimenting  with  the  laws  of 
breeding. 

Controlling  Factors. — The  influences  which  are  active  in  the 
propagation  or  breeding  of  poultry  are  numerous  and  varied. 
They  may  be  grouped  under  three  heads: 

All  characteristics  which  are  transmitted  from  parent  to  off- 
spring, this  group  being  termed  inheritance. 

All  characteristics  which  are  due  to  external  conditions  sur- 
rounding the  individual,  these  being  termed  environment. 

All  characteristics  which  are  functional  in  nature,  and  in  many 
cases  influenced  by  man's  activities.  In  demonstration  these  func- 
tions are  nearly  all  influenced  directly  by  man,  while  in  the  wild 
state  they  are  given  freedom  of  exercise.  This  group  may  be 
termed  functional  activities. 

Inheritance. — Inheritance,  in  the  sense  here  used,  is  a  much 
broader  term  than  when  employed  to  define  the  law  of  heredity. 
It  embraces  all  the  powers,  qualities,  and  characteristics  which  are 
transmitted  from  the  parents  to  the  progeny  through  the  egg,  the 
combining  or  merging  of  traits  possessed  by  both  male  and  female 
into  one,  and  the  new  characteristics  of  the  resulting  chicks. 

This  factor  of  inheritance  affects  or  influences  a  great  variety 
of  conditions.  Among  these  are  the  shape  and  size  of  the  body, 
and  the  quality  and  color  pattern  of  the  plumage;  all  internal 
bodily  functions,  such  as  the  development  of  the  digestive  system, 
the  power  of  the  circulatory  system,  and  the  capacity  of  the 
respiratory  system;  the  texture  and  structure  of  muscles,  bones,  and 


CONTROLLING  FACTORS  227 

ligaments.  It  also  affects  the  habits  of  the  future  progeny, 
their  capacity  for  consuming  feed,  and  indirectly  their  power  of 
reproduction. 

Disease  is  both  directly  and  indirectly  transmitted.  In  the 
former  case  diseases  which  attack  the  reproductive  organs,  such 
as  white  diarrhoea,  are  directly  transmitted  through  the  egg  to 
the  resulting  offspring.  In  other  instances  diseases,  such  as  tuber- 
culosis and  cholera,  by  affecting  the  parent  tend  to  generate  in 
the  progeny  a  weakness  of  that  organ  or  group  of  organs  which 
makes  the  offspring  more  susceptible  to  the  infection  of  that  par- 
ticular disease.  The  specific  germs  of  such  diseases  are  not  in- 
herited, yet  the  predisposition  is.  It  is  this  factor  of  inheritance 
which  marks  out  an  orderly  and  progressive  path  for  the  develop- 
ment of  poultry  breeding,  and  enables  the  fancier  and  utility 
breeders  to  show  every  year  a  systematic  advance  in  the  methods 
of  mating  their  best  birds. 

Environment. — From  the  time  the  egg  is  laid  it  is  susceptible 
to  external  conditions,  such  as  temperature,  moisture,  and  physical 
changes.  These  factors  are  entirely  different  from  the  group  pre- 
viously mentioned,  as  they  can  be  directly  influenced  or  regulated 
by  man.  If  the  embryo  is  to  develop  normally  and  regularly  during 
the  incubation  period,  and  the  chick  be  successfully  hatched,  these 
external  factors  of  temperature,  moisture,  and  purity  of  air,  as  well 
as  certain  physical  changes,  must  all  be  regulated  or  borne  in  mind. 

The  external  conditions,  such  as  shelter  and  feed,  which  exist 
immediately  after  hatching,  influence  to  a  great  extent  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  progeny  at  maturity,  and  they  affect  indirectly  the 
future  breeding  possibilities  of  the  individual. 

All  the  problems  of  environment  can  be  most  safely  solved  by 
planning  everything  with  a  view  to  the  comfort  of  the  birds;  other- 
wise, their  growth  will  not  be  satisfactory,  nor  can  they  be  expected 
to  produce  a  profitable  quantity  of  eggs. 

Cleanliness  and  sanitary  surroundings  are  very  essential,  as 
they  tend  to  minimize  the  danger  of  communicable  diseases  and 
create  an  atmosphere  of  contentment. 

Maintenance  of  favorable  environment  is  very  important  during 
the  brooding  and  rearing  period,  for  a  low  brooder  temperature 
will  chill  the  young  and  cause  crowding,  which  will  result  in  weakly 
developed  chicks,  if  not  in  their  immediate  death.  Later,  during 
the  growing  period  and  when  on  the  range,  they  need  a  large  area 
of  shade,  and  an  abundance  of  nourishment,  including  green  feed, 


228  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

if  the  blood  elements  which  they  inherited  from  their  parents  are 
to  be  given  an  opportunity  for  full  development. 

Another  important  factor  in  the  environment  is  the  supply  of 
feed,  which  must  be  sufficient  in  amount,  wholesome,  and  of  the 
right  degree  of  concentration.  Instances  have  been  known  in 
which  the  excessive  forcing  of  mature  birds  during  their  first  laying 
season  had  so  weakened  their  vitality  that  their  records  in  egg  pro- 
duction were  not  nearly  as  high  as  those  of  their  parents,  whereas, 
after  selected  mating  and  breeding,  they  should  have  excelled  them 
if  conditions  had  been  right.  Birds  which  are  kept  by  man  in  a 
state  of  domestication  are  dependent  upon  him  for  shelter  and 
feed,  which  largely  make  up  their  environment,  and  a  careful  and 
proper  regulation  of  this  is  essential  if  the  inherited  qualities  are 
to  be  given  opportunity  for  their  highest  development. 

Functional  Activities. — From  the  time  the  chick  is  hatched,  the 
degree  of  development  which  it  will  ultimately  attain  depends  in 
large  measure  upon  the  extent  to  which  it  performs  its  normal 
bodily  functions.  The  normal  activity  of  an  organ  increases  its 
power  to  perform  its  function  in  a  healthy  and  normal  manner. 
For  example,  the  blacksmith  by  the  constant  use  of  his  right  arm 
gradually  attains  a  greater  muscular  development  in  this  than  in 
the  other  arm  which  does  not  get  this  regular  and  systematic 
exercise.  In  a  similar  way  the  poultryman  may,  by  careful  hand- 
ling and  feeding  of  his  birds  and  by  allowing  them  sufficient  exer- 
cise, keep  them  in  a  normal  and  healthy  condition.  Should  he 
restrict  their  exercise,  and  increase  the  concentrated  feed  stuffs, 
such  as  corn  meal,  the  birds  would  soon  become  lazy,  take  on 
excessive  fat,  and  gradually  become  poorer  and  poorer  layers  until 
the  function  would  finally  cease.  If  the  conditions  were  not  cor- 
rected, the  functional  activities  of  the  body  would  become  con- 
gested and  clogged  and  death  would  result. 

In  the  same  way  it  is  possible  to  develop  excessively  the  growth 
and  maturity  of  certain  organs;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  forcing  of 
pullets  for  early  maturity.  The  egg-forming  organs  are  stimulated 
to  activity  before  they  attain  their  normal  development,  and  the 
resulting  eggs  are  small  in  size,  in  many  instances  containing  weak 
germs,  especially  if  the  pullets  are  mated  to  males  of  early  devel- 
opment. Their  eggs  when  hatched  will  produce  chicks  small  in 
size  and  of  light  weight,  many  of  them  cripples  and  weaklings. 
Not  only  will  the  eggs  be  small,  but  the  bird  itself,  because  of  its 
early  maturity,  will  never  attain  the  size  and  shape  which  would 


LAW  OF  HEREDITY  229 

have  been  possible  with  a  slower  bodily  development  and  later 
maturity.  Thus  we  see  the  folly  of  attempting  to  force  early  laying 
at  the  expense  of  other  functions  of  the  body.  The  aim  should 
be  to  give  the  bodily  functions  every  incentive  to  healthy,  normal 
growth  and  maturity,  after  which  time,  with  the  strength  and  vital- 
ity incident  to  strong  functional  activity,  the  greatest  usefulness 
of  the  individual  can  be  expected. 

Laws  of  Breeding.— There  are  certain  definite  laws  which 
govern  breeding,  but  in  the  science  of  breeding  many  principles 
and  interpretations  either  remain  undiscovered  or  cannot  in  every 
instance  be  explained.  The  purpose  in  the  following  sections  will 
be  to  outline  some  of  the  more  fundamental  laws,  and  assist  the 
student  to  such  an  understanding  of  the  knowledge  of  to-day  as 
will  enable  him  to  pursue  the  art  of  breeding  with  £,  clearer  insight 
and  with  greater  certainty  of  success. 

Many  of  the  laws  or  rules  of  breeding  which  have  been  expressed 
scientifically  during  the  last  two  hundred  years  had  been  previously 
handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  in  traditional  form.  The 
fact  that  early  statistics  were  not  kept  in  definite  form  militated 
against  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  of  results,  and  is  partly  re- 
sponsible for  the  slow  development  made  in  the  study  and  progress  of 
the  science  of  breeding  prior  to  the  last  two  centuries.  In  recent 
years  more  progress  has  been  made  and  many  principles  established. 

Law  of  Heredity. — The  law  of  heredity  as  usually  stated  is: 
Like  begets  like.  It  implies  that  the  characteristics  of  the  parent 
will  appear  in  a  more  or  less  marked  degree  in  the  offspring,  and 
refers  directly  to  the  transmission  of  individual  characteristics  to 
future  generations.  Heredity  is  too  broad  a  term  to  apply  merely 
to  one  individual  parent  or  offspring,  but  should  include  a  group 
of  individuals  which  constitute  the  parentage,  as  well  as  a  group 
of  offspring.  The  law  of  heredity  and  the  principles  for  which  it 
stands  are  fundamental  to  all  breeding  operations.  The  poultry 
breeder  must  become  familiar  with  all  that  concerns  preceding 
generations  in  order  properly  to  plan  for  and  achieve  results  in 
succeeding  generations.  The  difficult  problem  confronting  the 
student  is  to  determine  or  predict  to  what  degree  the  progeny 
will  resemble  the  parent,  since  many  factors  are  at  work  which 
may  cause  variations  from  the  type,  and  also  produce  entirely 
new  traits  and  characteristics. 

Practical  Examples. — When  applied  to  classes  of  poultry,  the 
law  that  "  like  begets  like  "  finds  ample  illustration  in  the  dis- 


230  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

tinctive  peculiarities  common  to  different  breeds.  Each  of  the 
eleven  different  groups  into  which  all  birds  have  been  divided  has 
its  distinctive  peculiarities.  These  relate  to  physical  form,  color, 
and  functional  development.  This  is  further  seen  in  the  division 
and  subdivision  of  each  breed  into  varieties.  So  strong  may  be 
the  resemblance  between  them  that  it  is  often  possible,  from  a 
flock  of  considerable  number,  to  pick  out  daughters  or,  more  often, 
sons  from  a  given  mating,  because  they  possess  certain  family  or 
mating  characteristics  peculiar  to  one  or  both  of  the  parents. 
These  resemblances  are  not  accidental,  but  are  the  direct  expres- 
sion of  this,  the  greatest  law  of  breeding. 

Benefits  from  this  Law. — The  actual  benefits  from  this  law  may 
be  grouped  into  three  divisions: 

It  makes  possible  the  improvement  of  poultry  by  breeding  to  a 
fixed  standard.  The  highest  degree  of  perfection  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  attain  will  probably  never  be  reached  so  long  as  the  stand- 
ard of  excellence  is  only  gradually  raised. 

It  enables  breeders  to  maintain  improvement  after  it  is  once 
established.  Everywhere  in  nature  there  is  a  strong  tendency 
toward  deterioration,  and  the  proper  manipulation  of  individuals 
by  the  action  of  this  law  will  aid  in  checking  this  retrograde  tend- 
ency. Poultry,  if  neglected  for  even  one  or  two  generations,  are 
especially  susceptible  to  this  process  of  deterioration,  the  degree 
depending  upon  the  vitality  and  purity  of  the  blood  when  the  race 
was  at  its  best. 

By  the  action  of  this  law  it  is  possible  to  fix  new  types  and 
standards  after  they  have  once  been  created  by  a  selection  of 
variants.  The  tendency  of  poultry  breeding  in  the  past  has  been 
to  attempt  to  create  new  breeds.  In  many  cases  the  breeder  did 
not  clearly  understand  just  what  type  he  was  after,  or  the  exact 
value  of  a  desired  characteristic,  could  it  be  secured.  The  result 
is*  that  we  have  to-day  a  great  many  breeds  of  poultry  which  are 
duplicates  in  many  respects.  The  great  need  in  the  immediate 
future  is  the  improvement  of  well-established  breeds  rather  than 
the  creation  of  new  ones. 

Heredity  in  Cross  Breeds. — By  hybridizing  is  meant  the  crossing 
of  two  varieties,  or  breeds,  the  object  being  to  produce  a  combi- 
nation of  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  two.  At  some  future  time 
the  qualities  of  three  or  more  breeds  may  be  combined.  For  ex- 
ample, let  us  suppose  that  a  breeder  who  had  produced  an  excellent 
strain  of  single-comb  White  Leghorns  found  that,  owing  to  the 


MENDEL'S  LAW  231 

excessive  size  of  the  comb  and  its  becoming  frosted,  the  produc- 
tivity of  the  individuals  was  impaired.  He  desired  to  remedy  this 
by  replacing  the  single  comb  with  a  pea  comb,  but  in  order  to  do 
this  it  would  be  necessary  to  cross  his  birds  with  Indian  Games 
possessing  finely  developed  pea  combs.  The  pea-comb  trait 
would  be  fixed  in  the  early  generations,  since  this  is  a  dominant 
character.  It  would  require,  however,  many  generations  of  breed- 
ing and  selection  to  eliminate  the  color  pattern  which  was  brought 
into  the  flock  by  the  intermixture  of  the  game  blood. 

In  a  study  of  characters  which  may  possibly  result  from  hybrid- 
izing and  the  frequency  of  their  occurrence,  knowledge  of  Mendel's 
law  will  be  helpful. 

Mendel's  Law. — Mendel's  law  states  that,  when  crossed  forms 
or  hybrids  are  bred  together  the  opposing  characters  possessed 
by  the  original  parents  tend  to  combine  in  definite  proportion. 
The  offspring  from  such  hybrid  individuals  (AB)  will  assume  the 
algebraic  form  A2 +2  AB+B2.  In  the  formula  A  represents  one 
of  the  contrasting  characters,  while  B  represents  the  opposite 
trait.  This  formula  means,  in  numbers,  that,  out  of  every  100 
chicks  resulting  from  a  cross,  twenty-five  will  possess  one  of  the 
characters,  or  will  be  pure  A,  twenty-five  will  be  pure  B,  while 
the  remaining  fifty  (represented  by  the  figures  2  AB)  will  be  a 
mixture  of  the  two  opposing  characters. 

Mendel's  law  also  states  that  where  there  is  a  pair  of  contrast- 
ing characters, — for  example,  single  comb  and  rose  comb, — one 
will  be  dominant  over  the  other,  the  result  being  that  a  majority 
of  the  progeny  will  show  this  dominant  character.  The  other 
opposing  character  is  termed  recessive,  for  it  recedes  from  view  in 
the  presence  of  the  stronger  or  more  prominent  one.  Dominance 
of  a  character  does  not  imply  that  the  recessive  one  is  absent, 
but  simply  that  in  the  development  of  the  new  individual  the 
dominant  character  is  bound  to  appear.  A  pigmented  condition 
of  the  plumage  is  dominant  over  absence  of  pigment;  an  extra 
toe  is  dominant  over  a  normal  number;  feathers  on  the  shanks 
are  dominant  over  their  absence,  the  rose  comb  over  the  single 
comb,  and  so  on  through  a  great  variety  of  characters.  Only  one 
pair  of  contrasting  characters  is  to  be  considered  at  any  one  time. 
This  second  phase  of  Mendel's  law  may  be  expressed  by  the  fol- 
lowing formula: 

D2+2  Dr+R2 


232  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

D,  being  the  dominant  character,  will  be  present  in  three- 
fourths  of  the  progeny.  In  one-fourth  of  the  progeny  represented 
by  D2,  the  character  will  be  pure.  In  one-half  represented  by 
2  Dr,  it  will  be  mixed  with  the  recessive,  but,  owing  to  its 
dominance,  will  suppress  the  recessive  (as  to  appearance).  The 
other  one-fourth  of  the  progeny,  R2,  will  have  only  the  recessive 
character. 

If  the  breeding  of  individuals  resulting  from  the  first  cross  be 
continued,  interesting  phenomena  of  this  law  will  appear.  D2 
and  R2  will  continue  indefinitely  to  breed  true  if  bred  to  them- 
selves, as  they  respectively  contain  only  pure  dominant  and  pure 
recessive  characters.  Mendel's  law  refers  specially  to  the  hybrids 
or  the  apparently  crossed  portion  of  the  progeny  represented 
by  2  Dr. 

When  individuals  of  the  Dr  group  are  bred  together,  their 
offspring  will  in  turn  be  split  in  the  same  algebraic  ratio  of 

D2+2  Dr+R2 


which  was  apparent  in  the  first  cross  when  pure  forms  were  allowed 
to  breed  together.  This  ratio  will  continue  indefinitely  when  the 
hybrids  of  future  generations  are  bred  together.  The  same  will 
hold  true  of  the  dominant  and  recessive  characters  possessed  by 
the  hybrids,  —  namely,  that  the  dominant  character  will  always 
show  in  the  Dr  group  even  when  the  recessive  is  also  present. 
In  this  second  generation  D2  and  R2  are  pure  and  will  breed  pure. 
(They  are  technically  called  homozygotes.)  The  other  individuals 
resulting  from  the  same  cross,  represented  by  the  letters  2  Dr, 
are  hybrids  like  their  parents  (and  are  technically  called  hetero- 
zygotes). 

From  the  above  discussion  it  will  be  seen  that,  since  the  Dr 
group,  or  mixed  group,  always  exhibit  the  dominant  character,  it 
is  often  a  difficult  problem  to  differentiate  them  from  the  dominant 
group  D2 

To  test  a  dominant,  mate  it  to  a  recessive,  and  if  all  the  offspring 
are  pure  dominants  no  recessive  character  will  appear.  If  this 
parent  is  not  pure,  but  mixed,  the  offspring  will  be  one-half  domi- 
nant and  one-half  recessive,  having  followed  the  combination: 
(Dr)  +  (RR). 

All  hybrids  which  produce  only  pure  dominant  characters  may 


INHERITANCE  OF  FECUNDITY  233 

be  used  to  start  a  pure  race  with  such  characters;  hence,  by  the 
elimination  of  one  recessive  character  at  a  time,  it  is  possible  to 
breed  a  race  with  special  desired  characters. 

Mendel's  law,  from  its  complexity  and  apparent  confusion,  will 
not  be  of  definite  value  to  the  average  farm  poultryman,  yet  it 
is  essential  that  the  student  have  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
subject  in  order  that  the  behavior  of  characteristics  in  transmission 
can  be  better  appreciated.  The  principles  which  the  law  presents 
have  led  to  other  important  discoveries  in  the  phenomena  of 
breeding.  Some  of  Mendel's  deductions  in  his  original  records  are 
discredited,  owing  to  faulty  analysis,  yet  the  results  of  his  work 
are  more  far-reaching  than  those  attained  by  any  other  one  man. 

Inheritance  of  Fecundity.— The  transmission  of  the  character 
of  producing  a  large  quantity  of  eggs  is  one  of  the  most  important 
problems  before  the  poultry  breeder,  and  some  valuable  work  is 
being  done  at  agricultural  experiment  stations. 

The  discussions  pertaining  to  the  inheritance  of  fecundity,  or 
egg  production,  as  given  here  are  based  upon  the  work  of  Dr. 
Raymond  Pearl  at  the  Maine  Station.  Quotations  and  facts  are 
taken  from  his  papers  on  the  subject;  more  especially,  Maine 
Bulletin  192. 

Among  the  leading  biologists  who  are  at  present  making  a  study 
of  breeding  problems,  two  general  views  are  held  as  to  certain  funda- 
mental principles  of  heredity:  (1)  The  "  statistical  "  conception  of 
inheritance,  and  (2)  the  "  genotype  "  conception  of  inheritance. 

The  statistical  conception  of  inheritance  is  that  point  of  view 
which  assumes,  either  by  direct  assertion  or  by  implication,  that 
all  variations  are  of  equal  significance,  and  consequently  that  all 
may  be  treated  statistically  as  one  homogeneous  mass,  provided 
that  they  conform  to  purely  statistical  laws  of  similarity. 

In  studying  heredity  in  the  past,  the  mistake  has  been  made 
of  noting  a  few  individuals  only,  and  these  exceptional  cases  have 
often  led  to  conclusions  which  are  worse  than  useless  because  of 
their  extreme  range  of  variability.  The  advocates  of  this  line  of 
study  use  this  as  an  argument  in  favor  of  their  point  of  view,  and 
make  the  statement  that  to  study  inheritance  with  any  degree  of 
reliability  the  race  as  a  whole  must  be  considered,  and  not  simply 
the  individuals  which  go  to  make  it  up.  This  method  is  compara- 
tively new,  especially  when  applied  to  poultry,  and  necessitates 
a  large  mass  of  material  representing  sufficiently  large  numbers 
of  the  breed  under  consideration  to  be  actually  representative. 


234  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

The  most  extensive  statistical  work  which  has  been  carried  on 
in  America  is  that  which  was  done  at  the  Maine  Station  from  1898 
to  1907.  Here  the  practice  was  followed  of  breeding  continuously, 
year  after  year,  from  the  heaviest  layers,  regardless  of  all  other 
considerations  except  vigor  and  health.  The  final  results  of  this 
mass  selection,  after  nine  years'  work,  did  not  show  that  mass 
selection  from  high  producers  of  eggs,  on  the  basis  of  the  trap-nest 
records  of  the  individuals,  brought  about  continuous  improvement 
in  the  average  flock  production,  or  that  the  progeny  from  the 
heaviest  layers  were  better  producers  than  those  from  birds  selected 
from  the  general  flock.  These  maybe  considered  "negative  results." 

The  genotype  conception  of  heredity,  on  the  other  hand,  lays 
down  the  fundamental  truth,  firmly  based  on  breeding  experience, 
that  two  sorts  of  variations  can  be  distinguished : 

1.  Those  variations  that  are  represented  in  the  germinal  matter, 
and  are  inherited  without  substantial  modifications,  as  in  pure  lines. 

2.  Those  characters  that  are  somatic  *  are  not  inherited.    This 
group  is  not  connected  with  germinal  matter,  but  with  the  soma 
or  body  proper. 

It  is  only  possible  by  actual  breeding  tests  to  ascertain  to  just 
which  group  a  given  variation  belongs. 

The  keynote  to  this  latter  conception  of  inheritance  of  fecun- 
dity comes  from  the  analysis  of  individual  pedigrees,  by  which 
method  the  behavior  of  each  individual  in  inheritance  can  be  de- 
termined. The  leading  thought  in  this  new  conception  is,  that 
the  germ  cell  (egg  or  sperm)  and  not  the  body  (or  soma)  is  the  fac- 
tor of  primary  importance  in  generation.  For  example,  the  indi- 
vidual's body  (somatic)  characteristics  are  not  determined  by  the 
body  characteristics  of  its  parents,  but  by  the  composition  or  con- 
stituents of  the  parental  germ  cells  or  gametes.  Thus  the  size  of 
a  hen  is  not  determined  by  the  size  of  its  parents,  but  by  the 
gametic  construction  of  the  latter.  Recent  practical  applications 
of  this  conception  of  the  inheritance  of  fecundity  have  shown: 

1.  That  the  gametic  make-up  of  the  male  is  of  greater  im- 
portance than  that  of  the  female;  since,  in  the  average  flock,  the 

*"For  the  student  not  familiar  with  the  technical  terms  of  biology  it  may 
be  said  that  somatic  is  a  term  used  to  designate  those  characters  of  the  organ- 
ism which  pertain  to  all  parts  except  the  reproductive  or  germ  cells.  The 
reproductive  cells  are  called  gametes,  and  the  adjective  gametic  means  per- 
taining to  germ  cells,  in  opposition  to  somatic,  which  means  pertaining  to 
any  or  all  parts  of  the  organism  other  than  the  germ  cells." 


LAW  OF  VARIATION  235 

gametic  constitution  of  the  male  is  perceptible  in  all  the  progeny, 
while  that  of  the  female  appears  in  a  smaller  percentage  of  cases. 

2.  That  it  is  possible  systematically  to  breed  males  with  a  high 
productive  gametic  constitution. 

3.  That  in  breeding  to  increase  egg  laying  the  production  has 
been  divided  into  two  kinds,— namely,  (a)  normal  or  natural  produc- 
tion, which  takes  place  during  the  natural  breeding  season  or  spring 
months,  the  average  in  this  period  being  about  thirty  eggs;  and  (6) 
excess  laying  period,  which  is  possessed  by  fewer  birds,  and  which 
represents  from  100  to  175  eggs  laid  during  the  fall  and  winter.    The 
problem,  then,  is  how  to  breed  birds  which  shall  possess  in  their 
gametic  make-up  germ  cells  representing  both  of  these  periods. 

4.  That  improvement  in  egg  production  comes  about  by  raising 
the  general  average  through  elimination  of  the  poor  producers; 
or,  in  other  words,  by  bringing  the  mass  to  a  higher  level,  and  not 
to  any  great  extent  by  raising  the  standard  and  improving  the  best. 

5.  That  in  order  to  accomplish  this  improvement,  as  above 
outlined,  it  is  necessary  to  know  what  has  been  the  individual 
performance  of  the  members  of  the  flock  for  a  number  of  genera- 
tions in  succession,  and  this  can  only  be  determined  by  keeping 
small  breeding  pens  and  by  trap  nesting. 

While  the  application  of  the  genotype  theory  is  comparatively 
new,  studies  so  far  are  in  entire  accord  with  it.  They  indicate, 
first,  that  fecundity  in  fowls  is  transmitted;  second,  that  this 
inheritance  is  in  accord  with  the  genotype  concept,  even  where  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  establish  true  blood  lines. 

Law  of  Variation. — This  law  may  be  defined  as  the  tendency  of 
individuals  to  produce  progeny  which  differ  in  type  from  either  par- 
ent. It  is  constantly  working  in  opposition  to  the  law  of  heredity, 
and  might  be  expressed  as  the  law  that "  like  does  not  produce  like." 

In  the  light  of  present  knowledge,  the  causes  of  variations  are 
in  many  cases  obscure.  It  will  be  noted,  however  that  in  many 
cases  the  progeny  are  not  like  the  parent.  In  some  instances  the 
differences  may  be  slight  and  exhibited  only  in  one  or  two  charac- 
ters, while  in  others  the  variations  may  be  very  marked  and  cover 
a  great  variety  of  traits  and  forms.  As  applied  to  poultry  two 
general  principles  are  held: 

1.  That  all  characters,  whether  structural  or  functional,  are 
exceedingly  variable. 

2.  That  ordinary  variation  is  the  result  of  a  change  in  the  rela- 
tions between  a  number  of  closely  associated  characters  brought 


236  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

about  by  an  alteration  in  one  or  more  of  them.  This  variation 
is  not  caused  by,  nor  is  it  the  result  of,  the  introduction  of  an 
absolutely  new  character. 

The  fact  that  individuals  do  vary  makes  improvement  possible 
through  selection  and  breeding  which  would  otherwise  be  impos- 
sible. Indeed,  without  this  factor  there  would  be  no  chance  for 
either  improvement  or  deterioration;  the  type  would  be  fixed  in 
all  its  characteristics. 

Variations  are  of  two  kinds, — those  which  increase  the  useful- 
ness of  the  individual  and  those  which  are  undesirable  or  create 


FIG.  120. — Barred  Plymouth  Rock  chicks  from  the  same  mating  and  of  the  same  age, 
showing  morphological  variation. 

an  inferior  condition.  It  is  the  duty  and  purpose  of  the  breeder 
to  select  and  intensify  desirable  variations  whenever  possible. 

Types  of  Variation. — The  unit  of  variability  is  not  the  individ- 
ual, but  the  breed;  and  different  individuals  in  the  same  group 
are  made  up  of  different  combinations  of  the  same  characteristics. 
The  real  unit  of  variation  is,  then,  the  racial  characteristic,  but 
the  individual  must  be  made  the  unit  of  selection.  Four  distinct 
types  of  variation  have  been  found,  and  a  clear  perception  of 
these  is  necessary  for  the  intelligent  study  of  the  causes  and  behav- 
ior of  variations.  These  types  are  (I)  morphological,  (2)  sub- 
stantive, (3)  meristic,  and  (4)  functional. 

Morphological  variation  has  to  do  with  differences  in  form  or 


TYPES  OF  VARIATION 


237 


size  which  are  quantitative  in  character.  This  type  of  variation 
is  very  common,  a  simple  example  being  two  chicks  which  are 
exactly  alike  except  that  one  is  larger  than  the  other  (Fig.  120). 
In  this  instance  there  is  no  difference  in  the  characteristics  of  the 
two  individuals,  but  merely  the  fact  that  in  one  growth  had  been 
more  rapid  and  proceeded  farther  than  in  the  other.  This  type 
of  variation  is  especially  important  in  breeding  for  large-sized 
birds  for  market  poultry. 

Substantive  variation  is  shown  by  differences  in  the  quality  of 
different  individuals  as  distinct  from  mere  size  and  form.    Such 


FIG.  121. — Two  birds  of  the  same  parentage,   showing  variation  in  color  only — an 
example  of  substantive  variation. 

variations  are  qualitative  rather  than  quantitative  in  nature.  This 
type  of  variation  refers  to  the  constitution  or  nature  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  is  manifested  by  differences  between  individuals  of 
the  same  breed  (Fig.  121)  and  between  different  breeds.  In  regard 
to  the  character  of  flesh,  some  are  hard  (Games)  and  others  soft 
(Brahmas).  In  the  quality  and  taste  of  the  meat,  wild  and  domes- 
tic species  differ  widely. 

Birds  of  the  same  breed  differ  in  their  power  to  withstand  cold. 
Individuals  differ  as  to  their  power  to  resist  certain  communicable 
diseases. 


238  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

Variations  in  color  are  dependent  upon  quality  and  are  based 
upon  certain  chemical  constituents  in  the  feathers,  or  upon  the 
refraction  and  reflection  of  light  due  to  the  character  of  the  surfaces. 
Substantive  variations  are  undoubtedly  of  the  greatest  service 
in  poultry  breeding.  They  are  closely  associated  with  efficiency, 
utility,  color  pattern,  quality  of  flesh  and  bone,  color  of  flesh 
and  skin. 

Meristic  variation  represents  alternations  in  the  form  or  in 
the  repetition  of  parts.  It  usually  manifests  itself  by  a  departure 

from  the  normal  systemat- 
ic or  specific  plan  of  the 
birds.  For  example,  the 
normal  chicken  has  two 
legs;  the  addition  of  other 
legs  would  constitute  a 
meristic  variation  in  the 
type  (Fig.  122).  Meristic 
variations  are  of  little  eco- 
nomic importance,  as  they 
usually  appear  as  abnor- 
malities which  have  no 

FIG.  122.— Chick  with    four  legs— an  example  of       practical     Value.       To     the 
meriatic  variation.  . 

student  of  biology  they 
open  up  a  vast  field  concerning  the  real  nature  of  living  matter. 

Functional  variation  relates  to  alteration  in  the  normal  activity 
of  the  various  organs  or  parts  of  the  bird,  such  as  muscular  activity, 
glandular  secretions-,  and  the  like  (Fig.  123).  It  has  to  do;  not  with 
the  form  of  the  organs,  but  with  their  functions.  The  best  examples 
of  functional  variation  are  the  individual  variation  in  egg  produc- 
tion in  females  and  the  variation  in  the  prepotency  of  males  and 
their  power  to  fertilize  a  given  number  of  eggs.  Functional  activi- 
ties are  influenced,  and  variations  caused,  by  many  factors,  among 
the  more  important  of  which  are  exercise,  feed,  improper  environ- 
ment, and  care.  All  of  these  should  be  regulated  by  the  careful 
poultry  breeder,  if  his  efforts  in  mating  and  breeding  are  to  be 
followed  by  the  fullest  development  and  improvement. 

Mutations. — Mutations,  as  distinct  from  ordinary  variations, 
may  be  described  as  unlooked-for  or  accidental  deviations  from 
type.  The  new  type  formed  is  not  the  result  of  slow  continuous 
selection  and  fluctuation,  but,  with  no  intermediate  stage  between 
the  old  type  and  the  new,  there  is  a  sudden  change  of  form.  Muta- 


TYPES  OF  VARIATION  239 

tions  are  commonly  called  "  sports  ";  they  are  of  little  economic 
value,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  predicting  their  appearance 
and  to  the  readiness  with  which  they  disappear.  If  inbred  with 
the  parent  stock  they  frequently  cease  to  reproduce.  The  better 
method  for  improvement  is  the  slow  one  of  gradual  selection 
from  time  to  time  of  all  variations  which  tend  toward  the  ideal 


FIG.  123. — Eggs  of  different  size,  showing  functional  variation.  Upper  and  lower 
rows  laid  by  different  hens.  The  difference  in  size  is  a  result  of  functional  variation  due  to 
varying  rapidity  in  the  development  of  the  ovum  and  variations  in  glandular  secretions  in 
the  oviduct. 

type.  A  typical  example  of  mutation  is  the  rumpless  or  tailless 
bird  (Fig.  124),  which  shows  an  inability  to  reproduce  when 
closely  bred,  and  when  bred  to  tailed  birds  produces  very  few 
rumpless  progeny. 

Causes  of  Variation. — All  variations  are  influenced  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  by  two  groups  of  causes, — namely,  internal  and 
external.  Accurate  knowledge  pertaining  to  this  first  group  of 
influences  is  so  limited,  and  the  subject  so  complex,  that  it  is  of 


240  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

little  value  to  the  poultry  breeder.  The  small  breeder,  and  even 
the  casual  observer,  cannot,  however,  fail  to  note  the  great 
variation  in  breeds  of  poultry  owing  to  diverse  conditions  in  their 
environment.  By  this  is  meant  all  the  external  conditions  of 
their  life;  as  feed,  climate,  housing,  enemies,  and  especially  with 
young  growing  birds,  their  range.  All  internal  processes  of  devel- 
opment are  dependent  upon  external  influences  for  their  natural 
expression ;  hence  the  breeder  has  every  incentive  to  create  exter- 
nal conditions  which  will  conduce  to  the  growth  and  highest 


FIG.  124. — Rumpless  birds — a  common  example  of  spontaneous  variation  or  mutation. 

development  of  the  individual,  and  these  conditions  will  in  them- 
selves contribute  to  the  development  of  the  particular  type  or 
variation  which  is  desired. 

Atavism. — By  atavism  is  meant  the  invariable  tendency  of 
individuals  to  revert  to  the  original  type.  It  is  sometimes  called 
reversion,  retrogression,  or  breeding  back.  It  differs  from  the  law 
of  heredity  in  the  fact  that  the  characters  cropping  out  represent 
ancestry  more  or  less  remote  rather  than  that  near  at  hand.  An 
excellent  example  of  atavism  is  the  frequent  hatching  of  black 
offspring  from  apparently  pure-bred  Barred  Plymouth  Rock 
matings.  This  is  a  reversion  in  type  to  the  original  Black  Java 


LAW  OF  CORRELATION  241 

hen  which  was  the  female  ancestor  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock 
breed.  Atavism  may  be  shown  in  form,  color,  or  functional  activi- 
ties. Its  tendencies  are  of  two  kinds: 

1.  Those  characteristics  which  are  apparently  lost  but  which 
crop  out  in  pure  birds  after  many  years  or  generations  of  straight 
breeding. 

2.  Those  outcropping    characteristics  which   appear   in   the 
descendants  of  crossbred  birds,  and  which  have  not  previously 
shown  themselves  in  any  descendants  of  the  cross  or  which  soon 
disappeared  after  the  original  cross. 

The  prevalence  of  either  of  these  tendencies  is  governed  or 
largely  influenced  by  the  following  factors : 

1.  The  degree  of  purity,  or  the  time  elapsed  since  pure  breed- 
ing was  begun.     The  more  generations  there  haye  been  of  pure 
breeding,  the  less  likelihood  is  there  of  reversion  to  show. 

2.  The  purity  of  breeding  of  either  parent  when  new  blood  is 
introduced  for  desired  vigor  and  vitality.    It  is  safest  practice  to 
do  one's  own  breeding  so  far  as  possible,  as  when  purchasing  alien 
males  there  can  be  no  certainty  of  their  purity  with  respect  to 
certain  desirable  traits. 

3.  Lack  of  prepotency  in  either  or  both  parents  permits  rever- 
sion to  crop  out,  because  they  lack  the  power  to  subdue  latent 
characteristics. 

The  results  which  atavism  may  accomplish  are  of  no  practical 
value  to  the  breeder.  But  a  knowledge  of  its  workings  convinces 
him  of  the  folly  of  using  grade  sires  of  unknown  ancestry  in  breed- 
ing for  either  eggs  or  meat  purposes,  also  that  to  produce  definite 
results  and  to  develop  a  pure  line  of  standard-bred  poultry  he 
must  avoid  crossing. 

Law  of  Correlation. — By  correlation  is  meant  the  relation  which 
exists  between  the  form  and  functions  of  various  organs  of  the 
bird's  body.  Correlation  exists  between  all  forms  of  animal  life 
and  makes  possible  their  systematic  classification. 

Poultry  offers  an  exceptionally  fertile  field  for  the  study  of 
correlated  features,  as  they  have  many  variable  and  easily  defined 
parts.  Some  of  the  following  are  especially  interesting  correl- 
atives. The  form  and  size  of  the  individual  is  often  proportional 
to  the  form  and  size  of  its  parts.  For  example,  a  bird  with  a  long 
neck  is  very  apt  to  be  "  rangy  "  throughout,  with  long  body,  legs, 
and  head.  The  reverse  is  also  true,  and  a  bird  with  short,  compact 
body  and  neck  usually  has  short,  stout  legs,  back,  and  head. 

16 


242  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

There  is  also  a  relation  between  the  color  of  the  comb  and 
wattles  and  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  bird,  the  latter  being  asso- 
ciated with  a  bright  red  comb,  and  disease  or  lack  of  vigor  with 
a  dull  color  or  lack  of  color. 

In  different  breeds  there  is  a  definite  relation  between  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  body  and  the  development  of  wings.  In  the 
lighter  breeds  this  results  in  powers  of  flight  which  are  lacking  in 
the  heavier  breeds. 

Many  false  notions  as  to  correlation  are  often  advanced.  For 
instance,  there  is  a  belief  that  the  color  of  the  skin  indicates  the 
quality  and  flavor  of  the  flesh;  that  the  color  of  eggs  hells  influences 
the  quality  of  the  contents;  that  white  birds  are  often  of  weaker 
constitution  than  pigmented  birds, — all  of  these  are  without  sub- 
stantial proof. 

Body  Character  and  Functional  Activity. — Poultry  breeders  and 
experimenters  have  for  a  number  of  years  persistently  endeavored 
to  find  some  correlation  between  egg  production  and  some  readily 
detected  external  characteristics,  but  with  little  success.  As  was 
previously  stated,  egg  production  seems  to  be  an  inherited  func- 
tion based  on  the  gametic  constitution  of  the  individual,  and  has 
not  been  consistently  indicated  by  any  other  factor.  A  bright  red 
comb,  full  bright  eyes,  erect  carriage,  compact  and  solid  body  are 
all  signs  of  the  vigor  and  vitality  which  are  necessary  for  heavy 
egg  production,  but  none  can  be  said  to  be  always  associated 
with  it. 

The  author  has  noted  a  consistent  relation  between  shape  of 
barrel  or  body  and  the  power  of  reproduction.  Heavy  egg  pro- 
duction was  found  to  be  associated  with  great  depth  and  breadth 
of  body  in  proportion  to  its  length.  There  is  need  for  much 
statistical  work  to  test  such  a  relationship,  and  accurate  results 
cannot  be  claimed  until  a  great  number  of  individuals  have  been 
studied.  Wherever  it  is  possible  to  associate  certain  external 
features  with  functional  activity  or  vitality  or  constitution,  it  is 
a  simple  matter  to  put  into  practice  a  rigid  selection, — using  only 
birds  which  show  this  external  character. 

Prepotency. — By  prepotency  is  meant  the  increased  power 
which  one  parent  has  over  the  other  of  imparting  its  characteristics 
to  the  offspring.  It  is  really  the  power  which  an  individual  has 
to  transmit  its  own  characteristics.  This  question  of  prepotency 
is  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  breeder,  because  of  the  direct  influence 
which  it  is  bound  to  have  upon  the  improvement  of  his  flock, 


REVIEW  243 

whether  for  meat  or  fancy  points.  An  individual  may  be  all  that 
could  be  desired  with  respect  to  certain  characteristics,  yet  might 
not  transmit  these  particular  traits  to  its  progeny  because  it  lacks 
prepotency. 

Certain  breeds  are  especially  prepotent  with  regard  to  some 
well-defined  characteristics;  for  example,  Games,  when  crossed 
with  other  breeds,  transmit  their  distinctive  traits  to  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  progeny. 

Prepotency  in  individuals  varies  greatly,  and  is  indicated  both 
by  the  resemblance  of  the  progeny  to  the  parent  and  to  one  another. 
Prepotency  is  increased  in  the  individual  and  in  the  breeds  with 
increased  purity  of  blood,  stronger  constitutional  vigor,  and  in- 
breeding. 

Sex  Limitation. — The  power  of  one  sex  to  transmit  character- 
istics, and  the  limitation  of  the  other  sex  in  the  same  respect, 
is  a  disputed  point  among  the  closest  students.  In  the  light 
of  recent  work  the  general  opinion  seems  to  be  that  there  is 
such  a  difference  between  sexes,  and  that  it  is  very  important  in 
breeding  poultry  either  for  color  pattern  or  for  egg  production. 
In  egg  production  the  male  parent  is  believed  to  have  the 
'greater  transmitting  power. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Define  poultry  breeding. 

2.  In  what  respect  is  this  science  a  complex  one? 

3.  Point  out  some  facts  which  call  for  marked  improvement  in  our  breeds. 

4.  Compare  the  composition  of  milk  and  eggs. 

5.  What  is  the  chief  aim  of  the  poultry  breeder? 

6.  Enumerate  some  of  the  problems  which  are  confronting  the  poultry  breeder. 

7.  What  is  the  basis  of  value  in  poultry? 

8.  Enumerate  and  discuss  six  fundamental  principles  which  underlie  pro- 

gressive breeding. 

9.  Define  three  fundamental  factors  which  affect  all  individuals  in  greater 

or  less  degree. 

10.  Discuss  environment  and  its  relation  to  all  progeny. 

11.  Discuss  the  effect  of  functional  activities  upon  the  individual  and  its 

offspring. 

12.  State  briefly  the  development  of  the  laws  of  breeding. 

13.  Define  the  law  of  heredity  and  give  a  practical  example. 

14.  Discuss  three  direct  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  action  of  this  law. 

15.  Define  crossbreeding  or  hybridizing. 

16    What  is  the  first  assertion  of  Mendel's  law? 

17.  Discuss  the  influence  of  a  dominant  character  when  a  cross  is  made. 
Explain  with  equation,  according  to  Mendel's  law. 


244  PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING 

18.  Explain  procedure  in  testing  an  individual  to  determine  its  purity  of 

breeding. 

19.  Define  fecundity. 

20.  Outline  two  views  now  held  as  to  the  transmission  of  fecundity. 

21.  Enumerate  five  points  which  cover  the  practical  application  of  the  teach- 

ing of  inheritance  of  egg  production. 

22.  Define  the  law  of  variation. 

23.  Enumerate,  define,  and  give  examples  of  four  distinct  types  of  variations. 

24.  What  is  a  mutation?     Give  an  example. 

25.  Define  atavism. 

26.  Name  three  factors  which  influence  reversion. 

27.  Define  the  law  of  correlation. 

28.  Exemplify  by  comparing  the  body  characteristics  of  the  fowl  with  egg 

production . 

29.  Define  prepotency;  give  example. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES. 

THE  AIMS  of  all  commercial  poultry  breeders  may  be  summed 
up  into  four  definite  objects.  Some  may  be  striving  for  all  of 
these,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  efforts  are  concentrated  on  one, 
or  perhaps  two,  of  the  following  purposes: 

1.  To  develop  the  most  efficient  egg  machine  possible, — one 
capable  of  turning  out  the  maximum  number  of  eggs  of  high 
quality  during  the  season  of  high  prices,  at  the  lowest  possible  cost 
for  feed  and  labor, 

2.  To  develop  a  type  of  bird  for  table  purposes  which  will 
attain  the  greatest  weight  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  the  flesh 
so  formed  being  of  high  quality,  and  this  to  be  achieved  with  the 
least  expenditure  for  feed  and  labor,  thus  leaving  the  greatest 
possible  margin  of  profit. 

3.  Often  it  is  the  aim  to  develop  a  type  of  bird  which  shall 
possess  both  egg  and  meat  characteristics,  these  traits  to  be  de- 
veloped to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  which  it  is  possible  for 
them  to  attain  in  combination.    This  is  the  type  of  fowl  usually 
classed  as  general  purpose,  and  the  type  found  on  the  majority 
of  poultry  farms  in  America,  especially  where  the  farmer  keeps 
them  in  small  numbers  as  a  side  issue.     This  is  the  hardest 
type  of  fowl  to  develop,  for  improvement  in  either  of  the  above- 
mentioned  qualities  means  deterioration  in  the  other,  for  meat 
and  egg  qualities  are  the  results  of  opposite  characteristics  which 
it   is  impossible  to  develop  to  their  greatest  efficiency  in  one 
individual. 

4.  To  develop  a  bird  with  plumage  of  a  given  color  pattern 
is  also  the  aim  of  a  large  class  of  poultry  breeders.    Breeding  for 
any  other  fancy  points  may  also  be  included  here.    This  breeding 
of  poultry  to  a  color  standard  is  practised  by  many  at  the  sacrifice 
of  meat  and  egg  qualities;  in  other  instances  it  is  an  important 
feature  in  connection  with  breeding  for  other  utility  qualities. 

All  breeding  of  poultry  legitimately  comes  under  one,  or  a 
combination,  of  these  four  purposes.  This  chapter  deals  with  the 
practical  application  of  the  laws  of  breeding  as  well  as  with  the 
methods  to  be  followed  and  the  practical  results  to  be  expected. 

245 


246  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 


BREEDING   SYSTEMS. 

Crossbreeding  or  Hybridizing. — Crossbreeding  may  be  defined 
as  the  breeding  together  of  birds  of  different  breeds,  varieties, 
or  families,  with  the  hope  of  securing  progeny  exhibiting  in  one 
individual  the  desirable  characteristics  of  both  parents.  This  form 
of  breeding  is  only  applicable  in  the  formation  of  new  breeds. 
The  effect  of  its  use  is  so  thoroughly  to  mix  blood  lines  and  pedi- 
grees that  all  records  of  the  performances  of  the  ancestry  are  lost 
or  of  no  value.  Crossing  is  one  of  the  most  certain  means  of  pro- 
ducing variability. 

Where  birds  possessed  of  similar  characteristics  are  mated 
together,  the  progeny  of  the  first  cross  usually  show  a  fair  degree 
of  uniformity  with  regard  to  the  desired  trait.  Further  breeding 
of  this  crossbred  progeny,  or  hybrid,  will  result  in  a  great  variety 
of  types  and  variations  in  the  characteristics. 

When  birds  of  opposite  or  unlike  characters  are  mated  together, 
the  results  are  varied  and  disappointing,  even  in  the  first  generation. 

A  good  rule  is  to  avoid  crossing  wherever  possible,  and  to 
resort  to  it  only  as  the  last  extreme  toward  a  definite  aim. 

Grading  up  is  a  term  applied  to  a  method  quite  generally  used 
to  improve  the  quality  and  characters  of  a  mongrel  flock.  This 
is  usually  accomplished  by  the  use  of  pure-bred  males  in  a  mixed 
flock.  The  resulting  progeny  are  called  grades,  since  they  are  the 
offspring  of  a  pure-bred  animal  and  one  of  mixed  or  common  breed- 
ing. In  poultry  raising  the  cost  of  birds  which  are  pure  bred  and  true 
to  type  is  relatively  so  small,  in  comparison  with  their  superiority 
over  mixed  stock,  that,  as  a  rule,  it  is  more  satisfactory  and  econom- 
ical to  begin  with  pure-bred  birds,  and  if  need  be  to  start  with  but 
a  small  number.  Where  grading  up  is  practised,  the  mating  may 
be  made  either  way,  but  the  male  is  generally  taken  for  the  pure- 
bred parent,  since  he  represents  half  the  flock  as  far  as  progeny  are 
concerned.  By  this  method  it  is  possible  to  raise  a  practically 
pure  flock  from  mongrels  in  a  certain  number  of  generations. 

The  great  disadvantage  of  grading  up  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not 
likely  to  be  closely  followed  continuously  after  a  certain  degree 
of  perfection  is  reached,  and,  just  as  soon  as  the  breeder  uses  a 
grade  male  bird,  improvement  ceases  and  retrogression  begins. 

Inbreeding. — The  terms  inbreeding  and  in-and-in  breeding 
are  used  to  designate  the  breeding  together  of  animals  which  are 
of  the  same  pedigree.  Inbreeding  commonly  means  the  mating 


BREEDING  SYSTEMS 


247 


of  individuals  related  for  one  generation,  while  in-and-in  breeding 
indicates  those  showing  a  longer  period  and  closer  degree  of  rela- 
tionship. The  two  terms  simply  express  a  difference  in  the  degree 
of  relationship  of  the  mated  birds.  Three  ways  in  which  it  is 
possible  to  inbreed  are: 


MALI: 


O 


FIG.  125. — Inbreeding  chart  showing  distribution  of  inherited  characters.  The  black 
represents  tlia  blood  lines  of  the  male,  and  the  white  the  blood  lines  of  the  female.  The 
solid  black  lines  represent  that  a  male  has  been  chosen  from  the  group  from  which  they 
start  and  the  dotted  lines  that  a  female  has  been  chosen.  Inbreeding  is  traced  through 
four  generations  and  the  results  are  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  chart. 

1.  Breeding  sire  and  daughter,  which  produces  progeny  with 
one-fourth  blood  like  the  mother. 

2.  Breeding  son  and  mother,  which  gives  progeny  with  three- 
fourths  blood  like  the  mother. 

3.  Breeding  brother  and  sister,  which  produces  progeny  with 
blood  lines  from  both  sire  and  dam  in  equal  proportion.     This 
latter  method  is  undesirable  in  general  practice  (Fig.  125). 


248  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

The  chief  advantage  of  inbreeding  is  the  possibility  which  it 
offers  of  fixing  or  making  permanent  the  blood  of  some  valuable 
individual.  In-bred  progeny  are  exceptionally  potent.  Another 
advantage  is  that  it  avoids  the  introduction  of  new  blood  which 
might  produce  objectionable  characteristics.  Inbreeding  is  the 
greatest  force  known  to  intensify  existing  blood  lines,  and  this 
factor  makes  it  one  of  the  best  as  well  as  the  worst  system  to  use; 
for  it  intensifies  all  characteristics  of  the  individual,  whether  bad 
or  good.  Therefore  the  breeder  who  resorts  to  this  method  of 
mating  must  exercise  special  care  in  eliminating  objectionable 
factors  which  would  be  intensified  equally  with  the  good  ones. 
It  is  often  supposed  that  inbreeding  tends  to  reduce  vigor  and 
vitality;  but,  when  this  is  the  case,  it  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
fact  that  these  characteristics  exist  already  and  are  intensified  in 
the  progeny.  If  poultry  breeders  were  more  careful  in  selecting 
for  vigor  and  vitality,  this  apparent  objection  to  inbreeding  would 
be  overcome  and  less  heard  of. 

Line  Breeding. — Line  breeding  may  be  defined  as  the  breeding 
of  individuals  which  are  selected  from,  or  restricted  to,  a  single 
line  of  descent.  For  example,  it  is  the  process  of  breeding  within 
one  family  or  within  a  limited  number  of  families  all  of  which 
have  a  common  ancestry  and  represent  similar  types  (Fig.  126). 

Line  breeding  offers  good  opportunity  for  improvement,  since 
it  excludes  everything  outside  of  the  chosen  line  of  descent  and 
combines  in  the  progeny  the  characteristics  especially  desired. 
The  result  is  the  rapid  purification  of  the  pedigree-  and  the  fixing 
of  a  type.  There  is  slight  danger  of  outside  or  alien  traits  appear- 
ing. This  is  a  very  conservative  system  of  breeding,  and  is  the 
one  practised  by  many  of  the  best  poultry  breeders.  It  has  resulted 
in  building  up  some  of  our  best  strains  of  standard-bred  poultry. 
The  leading  advantages  of  line  breeding  are  two:  (1)  The  probable 
certainty  with  which  results  may  be  predicted,  thus  allowing  the 
breeder  to  work  with  his  eyes  open;  (2)  the  progeny  of  line-bred 
birds  are  backed  up  by  a  strong  hereditary  influence  which  results 
in  hastening  improvements  in  the  one  desired  direction,  owing  to 
the  lack  of  alien  or  mixed  blood. 

In  practising  line  breeding  there  is  one  point  of  caution, — 
namely,  the  necessity  of  making  the  matings  both  from  the  pedi- 
gree records  and  by  individual  selection  in  the  pens.  Some  breeders 
are  apt  to  neglect  the  latter  factor  of  individual  condition,  and 
make  their  matings  from  paper  only;  in  consequence,  a  few  genera- 


BREEDING  SYSTEMS 


249 


tions  of  weak  birds  may  be  used,  and  this  will  speedily  ruin  all 
past  and  future  results.  Line  breeding  is  one  of  the  best  systems 
for  improvement  if  understood  and  correctly  managed.  The 
chart  (Fig.  126)  will  enable  the  poultryman  to  understand  the 
system,  so  that  he  may  proceed  in  safety  and  get  sure  results. 

MALE  LINE  FEMALE  LINE 

LINE  BREEEfflG  CHART 


/   I 


4th 


6th 


FIG.  126. — Line-breeding  chart.  In  this  chart  the  black  and  white  circles  and  seg- 
ments represent  the  blood  lines,  black  standing  for  the  male  line  and  white  for  the  female 
line.  The  solid  black  lines  represent  that  a  male  has  been  chosen  from-the  group  from  which 
they  start  and  the  dotted  lines  that  a  female  has  been  chosen.  The  cross-lined  circle  at 
the  left  shows  what  takes  place  when  out-crossing  or  the  bringing  in  of  new  blood  linea  is 
practised.  (After  I.  K.  Felch.) 

Out-crossing,  as  generally  practised,  is  the  use  of  a  male  bird 
of  unrelated  blood  with  females  of  the  same  breed  which  have 
been  in-bred  or  line-bred  for  a  number  of  generations.  It  does 
not  mean  the  introduction  of  blood  of  a  different  breed,  but  of 


250  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

new  blood  of  the  same  breed.  It  is  usually  done  with  two  objects 
in  view:  (1)  To  correct  some  defect  which  it  is  apparently  impos- 
sible to  correct  within  the  line  which  has  been  establishe/i  and  fol- 
lowed; or  (2)  to  introduce  some  desirable  feature  which  the  estab- 
lished line  does  not  possess. 

If  careful  selection  has  been  made  in  line  breeding,  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  out-crossing  should  be  resorted  to  except  for  one  of  the  above- 
mentioned  reasons.  Even  under  these  conditions,  out-crossing 
should  be  cautiously  done,  lest  the  variations  which  are  produced 
follow  a  different  line  or  direction  from  that  which  is  desired. 

Reciprocal  Crosses. — By  reciprocal  crossing  is  meant  the  alter- 
nate crossing  of  male  and  female  of  two  different  breeds  or  varieties. 
The  behavior  of  reciprocal  crosses  in  poultry  breeding  is  an  inter- 
esting phenomenon.  When  two  races  of  the  same  general  type 
and  character  are  crossed,  the  progeny  are  similar,  no  matter  which 
type  was  used  as  the  male  parent.  If,  however,  the  parents  are 
widely  different,  the  resulting  progeny  will  vary  with  the  varying 
size  of  the  parents.  For  example,  if  one  parent  is  a  bantam  and 
the  other  a  large  bird,  the  size  of  the  egg,  and  therefore  of  the 
chick,  will  be  like  that  of  the  mother.  If  the  mother  is  a  bantam 
the  chicks  will  be  small;  if  the  mother  is  of  full  size  the  chicks  also 
will  be  full  size.  There  are  many  minor  features  which  give  similar 
results,  but  generally  the  progeny  resemble  each  other  regardless 
of  parent  alternations. 

Control  of  Sex. — A  problem  concerning  which  there  is  much 
speculation  and  discussion  is  the  possibility  of  controlling  sex. 
From  the  standpoint  of  economy  and  profit,  it  would  be  a  great 
advantage  in  poultry  breeding  to  have  a  large  majority  of  the 
progeny  females,  since  one  male  is  sufficient  for  a  considerable 
number  of  hens,  and  the  female  is  the  real  economic  producing 
unit.  Despite  the  fact  that  numerous  rules  have  been  formulated 
for  controlling  this  factor,  our  present  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
reproduction  does  not  permit  us  to  expect  any  great  variation  in 
either  direction  from  the  usual  50  per  cent  of  each  sex.  Sex  is 
undoubtedly  determined,  in  birds  at  least,  at  the  time  of  fertiliza- 
tion by  the  union  of  certain  kinds  of  germ  cells,  and  its  control  is 
at  present  beyond  human  power.  The  sex  of  the  egg  after  being 
laid  is  not  known. 

Summary  of  Breeding  Systems. — Considerable  has  been  said 
concerning  different  systems  of  breeding.  The  choice  of  a  method 
should  be  governed  entirely  by  the  purpose  to  be  accomplished. 


BREEDING  SYSTEMS  251 

If  the  purpose  is  breed  improvement,  using  as  a  basis  family 
lines  already  established,  then  line  breeding  and,  to  some  extent, 
inbreeding  should  be  followed.  When  new  types  or  breeds  are 
desired,  two  courses  are  open, — either  to  watch  for  and  fix  mutations 
or  sports  as  they  occur,  or,  more  often,  to  accelerate  possible  varia- 
tions by  crossing,  and  then  from  the  hybrid  progeny  attempt  to 
develop  desired  characters.  But  Mendel  has  shown  this  to  be  a 
difficult  and  tedious  proposition  at  the  best,  and  impracticable  on 
the  average  poultry  farm. 

If  the  purpose  is  to  improve  common  stock  at  small  expense, 
then  grading  up  is  the  best  method.  In  all  cases  the  idea  should 
be  to  breed  from  the  best  of  the  fowls  which  have  the  desired  trait 
developed  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection. 

Selection. — Regardless  of  the  extent  or  the  method  of  breeding, 
the  poultryman  has  always  at  command  the  power  of  selection, 
and  it  is  the  real  source  of  improvement.  It  is  made  possible  by 
variation,  and  is  responsible  for  many  of  the  most  noted  develop- 
ments in  poultry  breeding. 

By  selection  is  meant  the  ability  to  choose  stock  for  propagating 
purposes  which  possess  desirable  qualities,  and  which  are  prepotent 
with  regard  to  these  characteristics,  so  that,  with  proper  care, 
the  resulting  progeny  will  be  of  a  high  standard  of  excellence 
which  can  be  maintained.  To  select  consistently  and  bring  about 
definite  improvement,  a  breeder  must  have  a  clear  idea  of  his 
purpose,  and  work  continuously  toward  it.  He  must  know  the 
breed  with  which  he  is  working  as  well  as  its  ancestry,  must  under- 
stand the  principles  underlying  selection,  and  use  judgment  in 
departing  from  certain  well-defined  lines  when  compelled  thereto 
for  economic  or  commercial  reasons. 

In  selection  there  is  the  important  fundamental  advantage 
that  it  results  in  absolute  improvement  of  quality,  and  not  merely 
in  the  elevation  of  the  flock  to  a  higher  standard  by  the  elimination 
of  the  lower  or  average  members.  It  accomplishes  two  well- 
defined  results:  (1)  It  increases  the  production  of  individuals, 
thereby  making  it  possible  to  secure  increasingly  higher  individual 
records;  and  (2)  it  stimulates  the  average  production  by  raising 
the  average  of  the  mass,  by  eliminating  the  poor  producers,  and 
by  substituting  heavier  layers  in  their  place. 

Selection  should  be  continuously  practised,  not  only  in  the 
breeding  pen,  but  in  the  elimination  of  weak  or  sick  birds  through- 
out the  entire  brooding  and  growing  period.  Fowls  which  show, 


252  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

at  any  time,  a  lack  of  constitutional  vigor  will  never  prove  profit- 
able for  any  purpose. 

Further  possibilities  in  selection  are  discussed  under  the  sub- 
ject of  breeding  for  definite  purposes. 

BREEDING  FOB  EGG  PRODUCTION. 

It  is  probable  that  more  poultrymen  are  endeavoring  to  increase 
the  egg-producing  qualities  of  their  birds  indirectly  by  breeding 
and  selection  than  are  attempting  to  improve  all  other  qualities 
combined.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  egg  production  represents 
a  direct  money  return  which,  under  farming  conditions,  is  the 
one  factor  of  greatest  definite  value. 

Breeding  for  egg  production  necessitates  not  only  careful  mating 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  breeding,  but  also  a  clear  idea  of 
the  so-called  "  egg  quality  "  and  egg  type  among  birds  which  will 
lead  to  progressive  selection. 

The  following  rules  should  be  kept  in  mind  when  breeding  for  egg 
production:  (1)  Keep  only  pure-bred  birds;  (2)  breed  from  heavy 
producers  and  persistent  layers;  (3)  breed  from  mature  birds;  (4) 
practise  line  breeding;  (5)  breed  from  early-producing  pullets;  (6) 
breed  from  late  molters;  (7)  breed  from  heavy  eaters;  (8)  breed 
from  early  risers  and  late  retirers;  (9)  practise  proper  management. 

Keep  pure-bred  birds  of  one  well-established  egg  breed.  They 
have  proved  to  be  the  most  economical  producers  of  market  eggs, 
laying  the  greatest  quantity  of  excellent  quality,  while  the  feed 
consumed  is  utilized  to  better  advantage  than  in  other  types. 
There  is  also  greater  uniformity  in  the  shape,  size,  and  color  of 
the  eggs,  and  a  greater  demand  and  selling  value  in  general  and 
special  markets.  The  uniformity  with  which  pure-bred  birds  may 
be  bred  and  developed  for  a  given  purpose,  such  as  egg  production, 
is  much  greater  than  with  mixed  or  impure  stock. 

Breed  from  Heavy  Producers. — This  is  one  of  the  leading  rules 
in  breeding  for  egg  production.  The  average  productive  power 
of  the  progeny  may  be  greatly  increased.  This  can  only  be  accu- 
rately carried  on  by  the  use  of  the  trap  nest  and  by  special  matings 
for  breeding  purposes.  The  most  persistent  layers  are  those  which 
begin  to  lay  early  in  the  fall  (October  or  November)  and  continue 
to  lay  regularly  throughout  the  winter  and  spring  months,  also 
laying  well  during  the  summer,  and  which,  after  undergoing  a 
quick,  complete  molt,  begin  again  to  lay  in  the  early  fall  of  the 
following  year.  In  selecting  a  breeder  it  is  not  safe  to  take  the 


BREEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


253 


bird  which  is  a  heavy  layer  merely  during  the  three  spring  months, 
for  she  is  often  found  to  lack  the  persistency  so  essential  to  a  heavy 
yearly  production. 

Only  mature  birds,  male  and  female,  should  be  used  in  breed- 
ing for  egg  production,  for  these  are  more  prepotent,  and  will 
produce  offspring  with  more  vigor  and  vitality  and  of  larger  size 
when  adults.  Hens  should  be  used,  not  pullets. 

Practise  line  breeding  to  fix  and  intensify  the  good  qualities 
of  the  strain  in  regard  to  fecundity.  This  avoids  the  dangers 
attendant  upon  out-crossing. 
The  introduction  of  low  fe- 
cundity lines  by  the  use  of 
males  of  unknown  pedigree  is 
evidently  a  very  bad  mistake. 

Early-producing  Pullets. 
— By  selecting  for  breeders 
hens  which  were  early  pro- 
ducers in  their  pullet  year,  it 
is  possible  to  intensify  this 
characteristic  in  the  progeny, 
and  not  only  is  this  quality 
in  itself  desirable,  but  a  heavy 
yearly  production  is  seldom  at- 
tained without  it.  Early  pro- 
duction, say  October  of  the 
pullet  year,  means  an  early  FIG  127_ ,,Lady Lay More/,  a  white  Plym_, 

Winter    Start,    Which    Signifies  outh    Rock   hen   that   laid   281   egga    in  twelve 

.        .    ,j    f         ,,  W^i.  months,  winning  the  international  egg-laying  con- 

a    gOOd    yield    for  the   Winter  tegt  19n_i2.    Note  the  ragged  condition  of  the 

months  and  promises  for  the  plumage,  the  pale  shank  and  the  bright,  promi- 

,  .    ,  i     j     j_    i  nent  eye. 

individual  a  high  yearly  total. 

Late  Molters.— It  has  been  proved  by  experiment  and  obser- 
vation that  the  bird  which  molts  the  latest  is,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  the  heaviest  layer;  in  other  words,  the  hen  that  molts 
in  July  or  August,  and  gets  her  new  plumage  and  makes  a  fine 
appearance  early,  is  not  the  one  that  is  the  heavy  layer  (Fig. 
127).  The  one  that  is  laying  eggs  until  cool  weather  in  the  fall  is 
the  one  that  does  not  molt  until  late,  but  looks  shabby  and  raw 
during  that  time;  nevertheless,  when  she  does  start,  the  molt  is 
usually  rapid  and  complete,  leaving  her  in  good  condition  to  com- 
mence laying  in  early  winter.  This  external  feature,  the  molt, 
is  of  practical  value  in  selecting  persistent  layers. 


254  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

Birds  with  Large  Appetites.— The  consumption  of  a  large 
amount  of  feed  is  essential  in  the  case  of  the  heavy  layer,  in  order 
to  secure  the  materials  necessary  for  the  egg,  and  it  has  been 
found  that  heavy  egg  production  is  always  accompanied  by  heavy 
eating.  The  bird  with  a  vigorous  appetite  should  be  selected,  not 
the  one  which  is  a  small  and  delicate  feeder.  A  bird  which  does 
not  eat  cannot  provide  material  for  both  maintenance  and  pro- 
duction, and  hence  is  unprofitable,  even  though  her  cost  for  keep 
is  but  slight. 

Early  Risers  and  Late  Retirers- — In  the  selection  of  breeders, 
it  is  well  to  choose  birds  which  are  off  the  roost  early  in  the  morn- 
ing and  the  last  on  the  roost  at  night.  This  habit  indicates  a  keen 
appetite,  since  they  are  up  with  the  first  break  of  morn  looking 
for  feed,  and  are  the  last  to  give  up  the  search  at  night.  This  also 
shows  vitality,  for  any  bird  out  of  condition  or  with  low  vitality 
will  leave  the  roost  late  in  the  morning  and  with  reluctance. 

Selection. — At  the  same  time  that  one  is  breeding  for  this 
quality  in  accordance  with  the  preceding  brief  suggestions,  it  is 
essential  to  select  for  the  following  features:  (1)  Constitutional 
vigor;  (2)  egg  type;  and  (3)  size. 

Constitutional  vigor  means  the  health,  activity,  and  vitality 
seen  in  strong  fowls,  the  lack  of  which  in  weak  ones  makes  them 
unsatisfactory  producers  and  reproducers. 

There  is  great  need  of  breeding  and  selecting  for  constitutional 
vigor,  because  we  are  expecting  more  of  the  modern  hen  in  pro- 
portion to  her  live  weight  and  size  than  from  any  other  class  of 
domestic  or  farm  animals  (not  including  honeybees).  As  a  result 
of  heavy  strain  from  overproduction,  fowls  often  break  down,  and 
the  effect  is  shown  in  the  future  progeny.  Much  of  the  low  fer- 
tility and  low  hatching  power  in  poultry,  the  weakness  of  chicks 
and  mortality  in  mature  stock,  when  such  conditions  arise,  can 
be  traced  in  large  measure  to  the  broken-down  constitution  of 
the  fowl  under  exacting  requirements. 

A  good  hen  is  expected,  on  an  average,  to  lay  in  one  year  five 
times  her  body  weight  in  eggs.  This  would  equal  one  egg  every 
three  days  during  the  year.  In  order  to  accomplish  what  is 
expected  of  her, ,  she  must  consume  about  30  times  her  body 
weight  of  feed. 

By  observing  one  or  more  flocks,  it  will  be  noted  that  from  hatch- 
ing time  till  death  fowls  differ  considerably  in  regard  to  their  consti- 
tutional vigor,  all  flocks  showing  strong  and  weak  fowls,  regardless 


BREEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

of  breed  or  strain  (Fig.  128).  Breeding  and  selection  will  make  it 
possible  to  reduce  the  number  of  weak  ones  to  a  minimum. 

Lack  of  Vigor.— The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important 
contributory  causes  to  loss  or  lack  of  vigor: 

1.  Increased  Productiveness.— In  its  wild  life  the  ancestor  of 
the  domestic  hen  laid  but  few  eggs  a  year,  perhaps  a  dozen.  The 
modern  hen  is  expected  by  good  care  and  management  to  lay 
from  120  to  160  a  year,  and,  at  the  same  time,  these  eggs,  or  some 


FIG.  128. — Strong  and  weak  males.  Contrast  the  bright  protruding  eye,  erect  carriage, 
and  short  heavy  spur  in  the  one  and  the  low  tail,  sunken  eye,«long  slender  spur,  and  drooping 
carriage  in  the  other. 

of  them,  must  be  hatched  into  chicks  with  as  much  strength  and 
vigor  as  the  parent.  It  is  evident  that  any  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  eggs  must  be  accomplished  by  a  proportionate  increase  in 
the  physical  strength  of  the  bird,  to  enable  her  to  assimilate  the 
increased  amount  of  feed  required  for  this  increased  production. 

2.  In-and-in  Breeding  Without  Regard  to  Vigor. — Inbreeding 
is  often  resorted  to  in  order  that  the  high  producing  qualities  may 
be  better  and  more  quickly  fixed;  but,  where  due  consideration  is 
not  at  the  same  time  given  to  vigor,  loss  of  vitality  is  bound  to  follow. 


256  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

3.  The  use  of  pullets  instead  of  hens  for  breeding  will  lower  vigor 
by  producing  progeny  from  immature  parents. 

4.  Too  heavy  feeding  during  the  fall  and  winter  with  the  object 
of  increasing  production.     Under  normal  conditions  the  fowl  is 
allowed  a  part  of  the  year  in  which  to  rest  and  store  up  energy 
for  future  seasons  of  heavy  production,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
forced  feeding  and  heavy  production  are  antagonistic  to  the 
highest  fertility  and  greatest  degree  of  vigor  in  the  offspring.    It 
is  well,  therefore,  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible,  to  pick  out  all  the 
adults  which  are  desirable  for  use  as  breeders,  and  give  them  time 
to  store  up  energy  and  physical  strength. 

5.  Excessive  Crowding  or  Congesting  of  Breeding  Stock. — The 
modern  intensive  system  of  handling  poultry  is  responsible  for 
much  of  the  present  low  vitality.    Where  it  is  desirable  to  raise 
future  economic  producers,  it  should  be  the  policy  to  handle  the 
breeding  fowls  on  extensive  farms  rather  than  on  intensive  produc- 
ing poultry  plants.     Both  young  stock  and  breeders  have  more 
vigor  when  raised  on  land  used  for   other   purposes,  as   fruit 
growing,  grass,  and  grain  crops  that  are  being  raised  mostly  for 
pasture  and  green  forage. 

6.  Lack  of  exercise  for  breeding  stock  is  another  direct  cause  of 
low  fertility  and  subsequent  low  vitality. 

7.  Carelessness  and  improper  methods  of  hatching  and  rearing 
chicks  give  bad  results. 

8.  Failure  to  select  breeding  stock  with  superior  physical  vigor. 
If  the  desire  is  to  increase  or  even  maintain  a  high  degree  of  vitality 
this  selection  is  paramount. 

Signs  of  high  vitality  or  lack  of  it  are  easily  distinguished.  The 
following  are  a  few: 

The  actions  and  movements  of  fowls  probably  best  indicate  their 
physical  condition.  The  physically  weak  are  inactive  and  dull,  and 
more  likely  to  sit  than  to  stand.  They  do  not  range  to  any  extent 
in  search  of  forage,  nor  do  they  scratch  in  search  of  feed.  They 
are  longest  on  the  perch,  possibly  spending  the  entire  day  there. 

The  loudness  and  frequency  of  the  crow  of  the  male,  and  the 
cackle  of  the  female,  are  indications  of  physical  strength  and 
superiority.  The  weak  fowls  seldom  crow  or  sing. 

There  are  certain  body  signs  which  indicate  lack  of  vigor  in  a 
fowl;  as,  for  instance,  long  neck,  thin  beak,  narrow  head,  a  long, 
slender  body,  long  legs  and  thighs,  or  a  stilted  appearance,  while 
the  reverse  is  true  of  vigorous  birds. 


BREEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


257 


In  the  young,  growing  chick  common  signs  of  low  vitality 
are  stunted  growth,  accompanied  by  slow  feathering  and  a 
pronounced  crow-like  beak,  drooping  wings  and  head,  and  a  low, 
squatting  walk. 

The  strong  bird  at  any  age  should  have  a  bright  prominent 
eye,  a  well-developed,  blocky  body,  bright  plumage,  and  erect  car- 
riage, bright  comb  and  wattles,  and  should  be  active  and  sprightly 
in  movement. 

It  is  evident  that  there  is  a  relation  between  the  physical 
characteristics  of  fowls  and  their  vitality;  hence  it  should  be  the 


FIG.  129.— Showing  the  wedge  or  angular  shape  which  is  so  common  in  good  layers. 
The  heavy  development  toward  the  back  may  be  seen  from  side,  front,  and  rear. 

rule  systematically  to  select  for  constitutional  vigor  at  all  ages 
and  for  all  purposes. 

Egg  Type. — The  development  of  an  ideal  body  type,  and  the 
constant  selection  of  breeders  which  resemble  or  approach  that 
type,  will  aid  greatly  in  developing  a  uniform  flock;  and,  if  the 
features  which  go  to  make  up  this  type  are  those  associated  with 
heavy  egg  production,  it  may  be  termed  an  egg  type. 

While  it  has  not  been  proved  that  there  is  any  definite  relation 
between  a  certain  type  as  a  whole  and  egg  production,  yet  the 
following  features  are  associated  with  the  possibility  of  heavy 
production : 

In  discussing  type,  the  mistake  must  not  be  made  of  disre- 
garding the  breed  shape  or  type,  for  it  can  readily  be  seen  that 

17 


258 


APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 


there  cannot  be  one  egg  type  for  all  breeds,  owing  to  the  differences 
in  body  shape.  The  egg  breeds  bear  a  close  similarity  in  their 
breed  type,  and  it  may  thus  be  assumed  that  this  general  confor- 
mation represents  the  desired  form  (Fig.  129).  These  are  here 
outlined.  They  are  valueless  unless  combined  with  health  and 
vitality. 

1.  Width  of  body  comes  first;  as,  without  ample  room  for  the 
digestive  and  reproductive  organs,  they  cannot  attain  their  maxi- 
mum development. 

2.  Depth  of  body  is  essential  for  the  same  reason. 

3.  A  rather  long  body  carried  somewhat  high  in  front  and 
low  behind,  with  the  largest  part  of  the  body  lying  back  of  the 
leg  joint. 


BELLE    OF    JERSEY 


LADY    CORNELL 


FIG.  130. — Two  phenomenal  hens. 
A  COMPARISON. 


Belle  of  Jersey. 

Body  weight,  Ibs 3.8 

Lbs.  feed  consumed 118.5 

Eggs  laid  in  one  year 246 

Weight  of  eggs  laid,  Ibs 29.5 


Lady  Cornell. 

Body  weight,  Ibs 

Lbs.  feed  consumed 

Eggs  laid  in  one  year 

Weight  of  eggs  laid,  Ibs 


FINANCIAL  STATEMENT. 


Cost  of  feed $1.79 

Labor,  and  interest 1.00 

Total  debit 2.79 

Value  of  eggs  at  $0.35 7.18 

Value  of  manure 33 

Total  credit 7.51 

Net  profit 4.72 


Cost  of  feed 

Labor,  and  interest .  .  . 

Total  debit 

Value  of  eggs  at  $0.35. 

Value  of  manure 

Total  credit 

Net  profit 


3.2 
110.0 
257 

28.8 


$1.00 
1.00 
2.66 
7.43 
.29 
7.72 
5.06 


BREEDING  FOR  MEAT  PRODUCTION  259 

4.  Neck  medium  in  length  and  rather  full  hackle. 

5.  Tail  carried  rather  high,  showing  vigor. 

6.  Head  medium,  and  comb  and  wattles  large  and  well  colored. 

7.  Body  V-shaped  when  viewed  from  side,  top,  and  rear.    This 
V -shape  is  very  characteristic,  and  when  present  in  marked  degree 
the  heavy  development  lies  well  back  in  the  abdominal  region 
(Fig.  130). 

8.  Close,    compact   feathering,    and   short,  stout   beak,    with 
bright  eyes,  are  other  signs  which  indicate  a  good  layer,  hence 
are  requisite  in  the  ideal  type. 

9.  Legs  rather  short  and  widespread. 

Size. — Other  things  being  equal,  it  is  the  best  practice,  when 
breeding  for  egg  production,  to  select  fowls  of  good  size,  for  such 
birds  are  capable  of  digesting  more  feed  and  have  a  greater  body 
weight,  which  are  characteristic  of  physical  strength.  They  also 
lay  larger  eggs,  and  have  a  large  abdominal  cavity,  which  provides 
more  room  for  the  vital  organs. 

BREEDING   FOR    MEAT   PRODUCTION. 

The  following  points  will  be  of  value  in  making  the  best  selec- 
tion for  the  breeding  pen.  Only  those  factors  are  discussed  which 
are  needed  in  addition  to  those  required  for  egg  production. 

Use  Pure  Breeds  of  the  Meat  Type. — The  pure-bred  bird  will 
give  the  highest  percentage  of  progeny  capable  of  the  highest 
development  for  meat  purposes,  owing  to  long-continued  breeding 
for  that  purpose.  The  feed  they  consume  will  also  be  utilized  for 
the  desired  purpose  to  a  greater  extent  than  that  of  mongrels  or 
crosses.  The  finished  product,  when  killed  and  packed  for  ship- 
ment, will  show  greater  uniformity  and  be  of  higher  quality. 

Large,  Well-developed  Birds. — Size  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  mating  for  meat  purposes.  If  rightly  managed  a  large  frame  is 
capable  of  putting  on  more  flesh  than  a  small  one.  Not  only 
should  a  large  frame  be  selected,  but  it  should  be  abundantly 
covered  with  flesh,  especially  the  breast,  thigh,  and  back  It  may 
be  said  that  the  meat  type  is  represented  by  a  bird  large  in  size 
and  free  from  sharp  angles,  with  a  wide  deep  body  and  heavy 
development  ahead,  an  abundance  of  flesh,  and  having  a  compact 
rather  than  rangy  appearance. 

Character  of  Product. — The  character  of  the  product  desired 
will  to  some  extent  determine  the  method  of  breeding.  For  ex- 
ample, with  broiler  raising  as  the  object,  a  bird  should  be  chosen 


260  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

which  develops  rapidly  and  will  attain  considerable  size  at  an 
early  age,  as  Wyandottes  and  Plymouth  Rocks.  When  large- 
sized  late  roosters  are  desired,  the  type  of  bird  selected  is  one  which 
is  capable  of  attaining  extremely  large  size,  accompanied  by  a 
tenderness  and  good  quality  of  flesh  when  considerably  advanced 
in  age,  but  it  need  not  be  of  exceptionally  rapid  growth,  as  Brahmas. 
Associated  with  these  three  factors  should  be  good  health  and  an 
abundance  of  vigor,  which  under  proper  methods  of  management  will 


FIG.  131. — A  light  Brahma  pair — ideal  for  meat  production. 

give  the  individuals  every  possible  opportunity  to  develop  to  their 
fullest  extent  all  the  inherited  qualities  of  flesh  growth  (Fig.  131). 

BREEDING    FOR    COLOR  AND   PLUMAGE   MARKINGS. 

Years  of  practice  are  required  to  learn  all  the  combinations 
and  possibilities  which  result  from  various  methods  and  practices 
of  mating  for  certain  colors.  The  best  way  to  produce  variations 
in  pattern  and  color,  as  required  by  the  standard  for  each  breed, 
must  be  learned,  especially  variations  of  sex  in  the  same  variety. 


BREEDING  FOR  COLOR  AND  PLUMAGE   MARKINGS      261 

Double  Matings. — Before  discussing  color  variations  in  detail, 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  what  is  meant  by  the  term  "  double 
mating."  Double  matings  are  quite  different  from  the  reciprocal 
crosses  described  elsewhere.  They  have  been  developed  largely 
through  the  sexual  dimorphism  which  is  so  pronounced  hi  most 
breeds  of  poultry,  and  especially  through  the  desire  of  breeders  to 
exaggerate  this  difference  between  the  sexes.  These  are  often 
designated  as  cockerel  and  pullet  matings. 

Examples  of  such  exaggerated  differences  are  found  between 
the  hen  and  cock  birds  of  Dark  Brahmas.  It  is  the  desire  to  per- 


FIG.  132. — ,A  difference  in  color  pattern  due  to  sex — an  example  of  sexual  dimorphism. 

feet  the  penciling  of  the  hens,  while  in  the  males  it  is  to  group  the 
colors  in  masses.  In  order  that  this  difference  may  be  highly 
developed,  the  practice  is  to  make  two  matings,  one  for  females 
and  the  other  for  males.  To  produce  females  the  practice  is  to 
mate  the  best  penciled  hens  with  a  cock  bird  which  shows  as 
much  lacing  as  possible.  To  produce  males  the  darkest  hens  are 
mated  with  cock  birds  which  show  as  little  lacing  as  possible. 

The  sexual  difference  may  be  noted  in  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks, 
the  males  showing  narrower  bars  and  being  lighter  throughout, 


262  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

while  the  females  show  wider  bars  and  are  darker  throughout.  The 
best  marked  birds  of  this  breed  are  bred  by  double  matings.  By  con- 
tinuing this  process  throughout  many  generations,  it  is  possible  to  de- 
velop some  excellent  specimens  according  to  standard  requirements ; 
yet  breeders  have  thus  practically  split  some  breeds  into  two  well- 
defined  and  separate  varieties  according  to  sex  color  pattern  (Fig.  132). 
This  method  is  also  practised  extensively  in  securing  Leghorns 
of  the  desired  comb  type,  the  male,  requirement  being  a  straight, 


FIG.  133. — A  prize-winning  pair  of  Columbian  Wyandottes,  with  coloration  similar  to 
the  light  Brahmas.     (Photo  by  Sunnybrook  Farm,  Eatontown,  N.  J.) 

upright  comb,  and  the  female  a  lopped  comb,  these  differences 
being  exaggerated  by  the  use  of  double  matings. 

Breeding  successfully  through  double  matings  necessitates  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  breed  and  the  laws  of  heredity. 
It  is  an  artificial  procedure,  while  single  mating  is  natural. 

Breeding  for  Color. — There  are  a  great  many  rules  and  direc- 
tions for  the  breeding  of  partly  colored  birds,  especially  those 
with  fancy  plumage  pattern;  as,  for  example,  the  penciled  and 
stippled  breeds  (Fig.  133).  But,  since  a  full  understanding  of 
these  is  needed  only  by  the  true  fancier,  and  can  be  acquired  only 
by  years  of  actual  practice,  they  will  not  be  discussed  here.  A  few 
references  will  be  made,  however,  to  common  well-known  facts. 


BREEDING  FOR  COLOR  AND  PLUMAGE  MARKINGS       263 

Breeding  for  desired  solid  color  is  by  selection  and  grading, 
not  by  the  formation  of  new  colors  from  crossing  of  birds  of  differ- 
ent colors.  The  latter  procedure  would  result  in  progeny  with  the 
characteristic  colors  of  both  sire  and  dam  arranged  in  motley 
array;  while  by  selection  through  many  generations  it  is  possible 
to  attain  different  degrees  of  color  and  shade,  as,  for  example, 
variations  in  red  and  buff. 

Under  color  is  of  great  importance  in  fixing  external  color,  for 
it  affects  the  outside  color  by  toning  it  down  or  intensifying  it, 
according  to  the  contending  combinations  of  outer  and  under  color. 

Another  interesting  factor  is  that  of  color  harmony  or  the 
relation  between  certain  colors,  also  their  association  with  definite 
colors  in  other  body  parts.  For  example,  the  Rhode  Island  Red, 
or  any  red  bird,  with  stripe  in  the  saddle  or  hackle  is  invariably 
accompanied  with  yellow  shank  and  skin.  Were  the  same  plumage 
to  be  combined  with  willow-colored  or  blue  shanks,  a  lack  of  color 
harmony  would  immediately  be  noticed. 

The  same  is  true  with  all  black  plumage.  For  example,  in  the 
Minorca  and  Black  Langshan  the  black  feathers  are  always  asso- 
ciated with  blue-black  shanks  and  white  skin,  since  any  other 
color  (yellow,  for  instance)  would  produce  a  lack  of  color  harmony. 
Furthermore,  these  relations  seem  to  be  very  firmly  fixed,  and  even 
after  repeated  trials  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  substitute  the 
opposing  color.  There  are  certain  black  breeds  which  have  yellow 
shanks,  yet  this  association  is  accompanied  with  a  peculiar  sheen 
which  might  be  described  as  a  bronze  tinge,  while  the  true 
black  color  of  blue-shanked  birds  has  a  greenish  sheen.  There 
might  be  named  numerous  combinations  of  colors  which  seem 
to  be  fixed. 

"  Brassiness  and  creaminess  "  are  defects  which  may  be  due 
in  greater  or  less  degree  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  three  causes : 

An  unequal  distribution  of  black  pigment  in  plumage  of  breeds 
which  have  a  slate  under  color  of  dark  stripes  on  saddle  or  hackle 
(for  example,  Columbian  Wyandottes).  This  effect  is  especially 
noticeable  in  newly  established  breeds  before  color  pattern  has 
become  thoroughly  fixed.  In  its  earlier  stages  this  effect  is  termed 
"  smoky,"  but  the  cloudiness  later  changes  to  a  slight  yellowish 
tinge.  Such  a  defect  can  soon  be  bred  out  by  fixing  the  color  type. 

Creaminess  or  brassiness  may  also  be  caused  in  white  breeds 
by  an  excess  of  fat,  induced  in  many  cases  by  the  feeding  of  too 
much  corn  and  corn  meal.  Not  that  the  corn  necessarily  causes 


264  APPLICATION  OF  BREEDING  PRINCIPLES 

the  creaminess,  but  the  large  deposit  of  fat  under  the  skin  gives 
the  white  plumage  a  yellowish  tinge. 

It  is  also  caused  in  many  cases  by  the  "  burning  "  of  the  white 
plumage  during  the  summer  when  the  birds  are  exposed  continu- 
ously to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Most  of  the  noted  breeders  of  exhi- 
bition white  birds  keep  them  confined  practically  all  the  time, 
letting  them  out  only  toward  night. 

Soil  Effects  on  Plumage  and  Shank. — The  presence  of  certain 
alkalies  in  the  soil  may  make  it  almost  impossible  to  secure  the 
greatest  degree  of  color  in  plumage  and  shanks.  In  certain  sections 
it  is  impossible  to  get  and  keep  the  clear  yellow  shank,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  alkalies  in  the  soil.  Certain  highly  colored  soils,  of 
a  clay  or  shale  nature,  are  a  great  hindrance  to  the  breeder  by 
compelling  him  to  confine  his  birds.  (For  further  discussions  on 
breeding  for  color  see  references,  page  265.) 

Breeding  Fallacies. — There  are  two  alleged  facts  in  breeding 
which  should  be  explained. 

The  influence  of  a  previous  sire  or  impregnation  on  the  charac- 
ter of  subsequent  chicks.  In  the  case  of  fowls,  even  after  a  cock 
bird  has  been  removed  from  the  pen  he  may  become  the  parent 
of  chicks  hatched  from  eggs  subsequently  laid  by  these  hens,  for 
the  sperm  continues  active  within  the  hen  for  from  ten  days  to 
two  weeks.  But  if,  after  the  eggs  laid  have  ceased  to  be  fertile, 
a  new  cock  be  added,  different  from  the  first,  there  is  no  proof 
of  any  influence  of  the  previous  male  bird.  Experiments  by  Waite 
show  that  at  least  three  weeks  must  elapse  before  one  can  be  sure 
that  the  effect  of  a  previous  mating  has  ceased. 

Another  alleged  effect  is  that  of  imagination  upon  the  subse- 
quent progeny.  For  example,  there  is  no  ground  for  believing 
that,  if  two  pens  of  birds,  one  black  and  the  other  white,  run  side 
by  side,  any  splashing  or  mixing  shown  in  the  progeny  is  due  to 
the  effect  of  sight  or  imagination.  A  more  sane  hypothesis  would 
be  that  the  opposing  cock  bird  jumped  the  fence  and  fertilized 
the  eggs. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Name  four  objects  toward  which  all  poultry  breeding  of  a  commercial 

nature  is  tending. 

2.  What  are  the  commercial  possibilities  of  crossbreeding? 

3.  Define  "grading  up,"  and  state  its  commercial  possibilities. 

4.  Define  "inbreeding,"  and  name  three  ways  in  which  it  is  possible  to 

inbreed. 

5.  What  can  you  say  of  the  prepotency  of  in-bred  progeny? 


REVIEW  265 

6.  Define  line  breeding;  what  are  its  possibilities  in  commercial  breeding? 

7.  Define  "out-crossing"  and  give  its  use. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  reciprocal  crosses? 

9.  What  are  the  possibilities  of  sex  control? 

10.  Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  possibilities  of  different  breeding  systems. 

11.  Define  and  give  the  fundamental  advantage  of  selection. 

12.  Give  two  results  of  proper  selection. 

13.  Enumerate  and  discuss  briefly  nine  rules  which  should  be  considered  in 

breeding  for  egg  production. 

14.  Give  three  features  which  should  be  considered  in  selecting  for  egg  pro- 

duction. 

15.  Discuss  the  factor  of  constitutional  vigor  in  breeding. 

16.  Enumerate  some  of  the  contributory  causes  to  lack  of  vigor. 

17.  What  are  some  of  the  signs  of  vitality  and  lack  of  it? 

18.  Give  nine  points  which  are  associated  with  high  egg  production. 

19.  What  is  the  value  of  good  size  among  egg  breeds? 

20.  Discuss  three  factors  which  should  be  considered  when  breeding  for  meat 

production. 

21.  Discuss  "double  matings"  for  color  and  plumage  markings. 

22.  What  is  meant  by  sexual  dimorphism? 

23.  Give  some  important  considerations  in  breeding  for  color. 

24.  What  are  the  causes  of  "brassiness  or  creaminess?" 

25.  Name  some  soil  effects  upon  plumage  and  shank  color. 

26.  What,  if  any,  is  the  effect  of  a  previous  impregnation  upon  subsequent 

chicks? 

References.— Breeding  Poultry  for  Egg  Production,  by  Raymond  Pearl, 
Maine  Bulletin  192.  Importance  of  Constitutional  Vigor  in  the  Breeding  of 
Poultry,  by  Rice  and  Rogers,  Cornell  Reading  Course  Bulletin  45.  Inherit- 
ance of  Fecundity,  by  Pearl  and  Surface,  Maine  Bulletin  166.  Appliances 
and  Methods  for  Pedigree  Poultry  Breeding,  by  Pearl  and  Surface,  Maine 
Bulletin  159.  A  Barometrical  Study  of  Egg  Production  in  the  Domestic 
Fowl,  by  Pearl  and  Surface,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin  110 
(in  two  parts).  The  Single  Testing  System  of  Breeding  for  Egg  Production, 
by  D.  F.  Laurie,  Department  of  Agriculture,  South  Australia.  Breeding  for 
Egg  Production  and  Egg  Types,  by  James  Dryden,  Utah  Bulletin  92. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  LAYING  STOCK. 

The  primary  object  in  the  management  of  a  flock  of  laying 
hens  is  the  profit  which  accrues  from  the  sale  of  eggs  for  use  as 
human  food,  as  distinguished  from  the  production  of  eggs  to  be 
used  for  hatching  in  the  propagation  of  future  layers  and  breeders. 


PRICE  X 


MAR         MAY        JULY         SEPT.        NOV. 
FEB.         APR.        JUNE         AUG.          OCT. 


Yl  ELD  OF 
EGGS 


TEMP 

FIG.  134. — Curves  showing  the  relation  between  yield  (y),  temperature  (T)  and  selling 
price  (P)  of  eggs  during  the  year  1911. 

In  the  former  case  the  idea  is  to  secure  a  maximum  egg  yield 
throughout  the  year,  especially  during  the  months  when  the  price 
of  eggs  is  high,  owing  to  a  large  demand  and  limited  production. 
This  usually  occurs  during  the  cold  months,  or  during  November, 
December,  January,  and  February  (Fig.  134). 

The  endeavor  is  to  secure  a  maximum  winter  egg  yield  if  the 
greatest  profit  in  market  eggs  is  to  be  realized;  while,  in  the  case 
266 


PROPER  MANAGEMENT  267 

of  production  of  eggs  for  breeding  purposes,  the  actual  laying 
season  for  the  eggs  which  are  selected  is  very  short,  and  during 
the  more  natural  season  of  heavy  production. 

The  exact  profit  which  will  be  realized  depends  on  two  factors, — 
cost  and  amount  of  production.  All  the  necessary  factors  of 
environment  and  feed  should  be  provided  at  a  minimum  cost 
without  decreasing  the  efficiency,  keeping  in  mind  that  larger  pro- 
duction means  a  greater  amount  of  products  for  sale.  The  aim 
is  to  get  the  maximum  production  at  the  minimum  cost.  If  records 
are  carefully  and  regularly  kept,  there  will  be  found  a  limit  beyond 
which  increased  expenditure  in  feed  and  labor  is  not  compensated 


FIG.  13o. — White  Leghorns.     There  is  every  sign  of  high  vitality.     (Photo  by  Rancocas 

Poultry  Farm.) 

• 

for  by  an  increased  yield.  The  relation  between  cost  and  amount 
of  production  should  invariably  be  studied. 

Proper  management  for  successful  egg  production  may  be 
briefly  summarized  under  the  four  headings:  (1)  Selection  of 
stock;  (2)  suitable  environment;  (3)  proper  feeding  at  all  seasons; 
(4)  care  in  marketing.  These  may  be  considered  the  four  corner- 
stones upon  which  is  built  the  successful  management  of  laying 
stock,  all  other  conditions  being  secondary. 

Selection  of  Stock.— The  best  way  to  start  is  to  build  up  the 
home  flock  with  winter  egg  production  as  the  main  object.  The 
breed  to  be  selected  depends  upon  market  requirements  and  upon 
the  size  and  character  of  the  farm.  Large,  extensive  plants  will 
yield  large  amounts  of  eggs  which  must  be  shipped  to  special 
markets  at  some  distance.  The  poultryman  should  first  determine 


268 


MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 


the  color  of  egg  (white  or  brown)  demanded  by  that  particular 
market,  and  then  aim  to  produce  that  for  which  the  highest  price 
is  paid.  The  stock  selected  should  be  constitutionally  vigorous, 
and  well  bred  for  several  preceding  generations.  If  possible,  they 
should  be  from  a  heavy  producing  strain,  as  the  offspring  of  such 
are  much  more  apt  to  be  good  producers  (Figs.  135  and  136). 

Suitable  Environment. — The  laying  stock,  if  economical  pro- 
duction is  to  be  assured,  should  be  given  congenial  surroundings 
-and  an  environment  conducive  to  good  health, — hence,  to  increased 


FIG.  136ur— Ideal  individuals  of  the  single-comb  White  Leghorn  breed — unsurpassed 
as  producers  of  large,  white  eggs,  for  commercial  purposes.  (Photo  by  International  Cor- 
respondence School.) 

egg  production.  Environment  depends  upon  the  size  and  style 
of  house  and  the  care  of  house  and  yards.  Good  care  is  important 
in  the  management  of  laying  flocks. 

Proper  feeding  of  laying  birds  at  different  seasons  should  be 
studied,  and  proper  changes  made  to  meet  the  changing  conditions 
of  season,  weather,  and  age  of  the  birds.  The  cost  of  feed  should 
be  kept  as  low  as  possible,  and  yet  it  must  supply  the  nutrients 
required  and  in  the  forms  most  conducive  to  health  and  production. 

Care  in  Marketing. — Profit  from  good  production  does  not 
depend  alone  upon,  a  large  yield  of  eggs;  but,  if  the  best  prices 
and  profits  are  to  be  realized,  the  eggs  must  be  marketed  in  a 
manner,  and  at  markets,  which  will  insure  the  highest  revenue. 


FALL  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK  269 

For  this  reason  a  poultryman  producing  eggs  commercially  must 
make  a  careful  study  of  egg  types  and  grades,  as  well  as  of  market 
conditions,  in  order  to  solve  these  questions  intelligently. 

Fall  Management  of  Laying  Stock. — During  the  growing  season 
of  the  pullets  which  are  being  raised  for  future  layers,  great  care 
must  be  exercised  to  keep  them  growing  uniformly  from  hatching 
to  maturity,  as  a  check  or  setback  will  cause  them  to  mature 
too  late  for  winter  laying.  They  should  be  brought  to  maturity 
as  rapidly  as  is  consistent  with  normal  development  and  body 
growth.  Development  is  best  promoted  by.  free  range  with  an 
abundance  of  shade  and  green  feed.  At  all  stages  of  their  growth 
dry  mash  should  be  within  reach,  as  it  allows  the  birds  an  equal 
chance  to  obtain  the  nutrients  they  require.  Maturity  should  be 
reached  within  six  to  eight  months  from  the  time  of  hatching,  this 
depending  upon  the  breed,  the  Leghorn  being  one  of  the  earliest 
to  mature.  All  birds  depended  upon  for  winter  egg  production 
should  be  brought  to  the  laying  age  by  the  middle  of  October  at 
the  latest,  or  before  extremely  cold  weather  sets  in.  It  is  often 
possible,  by  varying  the  amount  and  character  of  feed  and  the 
mode  of  feeding,  to  mature  all  birds,  even  though  of  different 
hatchings,  at  approximately  the  same  time  by  giving  them  forcing 
or  retarding  mashes.  It  is  not  desirable  to  mature  birds  too  early 
in  the  fall  (previous  to  September  1),  as  they  are  apt  to  molt 
the  same  season,  in  which  case  they  will  not  be  profitable  for  winter 
egg  production.  On  the  other  hand,  maturity  should  not  occur 
too  late,  since  the  advent  of  cold  weather  retards  it  for  from  two 
to  three  months.  It  is  best  to  endeavor  to  get  a  maximum  egg 
yield  of  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  by  the  first  or  middle  of 
November  at  the  latest.  If  such  a  yield  is  secured  it  is  very  easy 
to  maintain  it  or  increase  it  during  the  winter  by  proper  manage- 
ment. On  the  other  hand,  if  the  egg  yield  is  small  in  November 
it  will  be  nearly  impossible  to  obtain  a  profitable  yield  from  the 
birds  during  the  next  three  months. 

In  Winter  Laying  Quarters  Early.— The  pullets  should  be  put 
in  their  winter  quarters  at  least  a  month  before  they  are  expected 
to  commence  laying,  for  two  reasons:  (1)  In  order  that  they  may 
become  accustomed  to  their  quarters,  for  birds  are  very  susceptible 
to  changes  in  environment,  and  will  not  produce  the  maximum 
number  of  eggs  if  changed  about  from  pen  to  pen.  (2)  It  is  much 
easier  for  the  poultryman  to  study  his  birds,  watch  their  ultimate 
maturity  more  closely,  and,  if  need  be,  vary  the  food  to  suit 


270  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 

changing  circumstances,  when  they  are  in  their  quarters  than  when 
they  are  scattered  about  over  the  range.  (For  types  of  houses  see 
Chapter  VII.) 

Before  putting  pullets  into  winter  quarters  it  is  advisable  to 
plan  the  arrangement  of  the  birds  in  their  permanent  pens  for 
the  ensuing  year,  so  as  to  insure  permanence  and  avoid  the  labor 
of  transferring  them. 

Practise  Rigid  Selection  at  Maturity. — Only  strong,  vigorous 
birds  should  be  put  in  the  laying  pen,  and  to  secure  the  best  results 
selection  should  be  made  from  hatching  time  to  maturity,  care- 
fully weeding  out  all  sick  or  crippled  birds  and  those  which  show 
lack  of  stamina  or  vitality.  This  selection  should  be  especially 
rigid  when  the  final  choice  is  made  in  the  fall ;  only  those  of  good 
size,  healthy,  mature,  and  vigorous  should  be  chosen,  as  these  char- 
acteristics are  usually  combined  with  prolific  laying  of  large  eggs. 

Size  of  Flock. — The  number  of  birds  to  be  placed  in  each  flock 
will  depend  upon  the  type  of  farm  and  upon  the  extent  of  the 
business.  Of  the  two  extremes,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the 
highest  individual  production  can  be  secured  where  a  small  number 
of  birds  (from  10  to  20)  are  kept  as  the  unit.  But  increased  indi- 
vidual production  means  increased  labor;  therefore  it  follows 
that  large  flocks,  of  two  hundred  to  five  hundred  birds,  can  be 
expected  to  produce  a  large  number  of  eggs  more  economically. 
In  the  latter  case  the  yield  per  bird  will  usually  be  slightly  lower, 
but  the  cost  of  labor  will  be  so  much  reduced  that  the  advantage 
will  be  on  the  side  of  the  large  flock  (Fig.  137). 

Winter  Management  of  the  Layers. — The  problem  of  winter 
management  is  to  create,  in  so  far  as  possible,  ideal  artificial  con- 
ditions, by  making  or  producing  an  environment  which  approaches 
in  a  great  measure  the  natural  conditions  of  spring,  which  is  the 
natural  laying  season  of  the  hen.  The  creation  of  this  artificial 
environment  necessitates  careful  and  continuous  study  of  the  birds 
and  their  needs. 

Proper  Feeding. — The  first  requisite  in  the  winter  management 
of  the  laying  flock  is  that  the  birds  be  provided  with  sufficient 
feed  containing  nutrients  in  the  right  proportion  to  supply  all 
their  requirements  for  maintenance  and  production,  also  that  they 
be  given  an  abundance  of  succulent  material,  which  is  an  incentive 
to  egg  production,  especially  during  the  winter.  The  proper  feed 
will  vary  with  the  breed,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the  weather. 
During  extremely  cold  weather  an  increase  in  corn  will  enable  the 


WINTER  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  LAYERS 


271 


birds  to  maintain  their  body  heat  with  a  lower  consumption  of  the 
materials  regularly  supplied  in  the  ration,  and  will  help  to  keep  up 
the  normal  production.  The  feeding  of  hot  mashes  occasionally 
during  extremely  cold  weather  will  also  help  to  keep  them  warm. 
Exercise. — Hens  kept  in  close  confinement,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  laying  flock  in  winter,  should  be  made  to  take  sufficient  exer- 
cise to  keep  the  body  in  normal  flesh  without  depositing  surplus 
fat.  More  care  in  this  respect  is  required  when  the  heavier  breeds 
are  kept,  such  as  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes;  with  Leg- 
horns there  is  less  danger.  When  not  at  liberty  the  exercise  taken 


FIG.  137. — A  large-unit  laying  flock  (500).    An  abundance  of  range  and  plenty  of  shade. 
(Photo  by  Rancocas  Poultry  Farm.) 

• 

by  hens  is  principally  walking  and  scratching,  but  birds  in  con- 
finement can  be  compelled  to  exercise  by  placing  practically  all 
their  grain  feed  in  deep  litter  on  the  floor  of  the  house.  Better 
results  can  be  obtained  through  the  winter  from  birds  kept  closely 
confined  and  induced  to  exercise  in  this  way  than  when  they  are 
let  out  on  wet  snowy  ground  and  chilled.  The  actual  amount  of 
exercise  necessary  must  be  determined  largely  by  the  judgment 
of  the  feeder  and  by  the  flesh  condition  of  the  birds  in  the  flock. 
Keep  them  plump, — neither  thin  nor  excessively  fat. 

Health  and  Cleanliness.— A.  healthy  condition  of  the  laying 
birds  is  a  fundamental  requisite,  and  is  best  insured  by  keeping 
everything  about  the  poultry  house  reasonably  clean.  The  break- 
ing out  of  head  colds  of  a  roupy  nature  in  a  flock  of  birds  in  the 


272  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 

winter  will  immediately  cut  down  the  egg  yield  perceptibly,  in 
some  cases  more  than  half,  and  it  will  be  a  number  of  weeks  before 
the  condition  is  remedied  and  the  birds  are  back  to  their  normal 
production.  Three  special  matters  must  be  considered  in  the 
sanitation  and  cleansing  of  the  poultry  house.  They  are  embraced 
under  the  following  headings :  (1)  Frequent  removal  of  the  drop- 
pings; (2)  keeping  the  litter  in  perfect  condition;  (3)  a  general 
cleaning  and  spraying  of  the  house  at  least  twice  a  year. 

Removal  of  Droppings. — The  exact  time  and  frequency  of  clean- 
ing the  dropping  boards  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  birds 
in  the  house,  the  weather,  and  the  kind  and  amount  of  absorbents 
used  on  the  dropping  boards.  A  good  rule  is  to  clean  the  boards 
whenever  the  droppings  become  moist,  for  they  then  give  off 
objectionable  odors  and  fumes  that  are  detrimental.  This  is  apt 
to  take  place  more  quickly  if  the  weather  is  damp  than  when  it 
is  dry  or  when  exceptionally  cold  in  the  winter.  As  long  as  the 
droppings  can  be  kept  dry  by  the  use  of  absorbents,  such  as  dust, 
gypsum,  sand,  and  phosphate  "floats,"  they  emit  no  odors  and  are 
not  objectionable.  It  is  not  economy  to  clean  them  too  often, 
owing  to  the  large  amount  of  labor  involved.  The  usual  custom 
is  to  clean  them  about  twice  a  week,  but  the  rule  varies  according 
to  the  conditions  outlined. 

Care  of  Litter. — The  litter  on  the  floor  of  the  poultry  house 
is  placed  there  to  hide  the  grain,  and  this  object  is  best  accom- 
plished if  the  litter  is  loose,  dry,  and  rather  coarse.  The  frequency 
with  which  it  should  be  removed  and  replaced  with  new  litter 
depends  upon  several  circumstances.  A  safe  rule  is  to  clean  out 
the  old  litter  and  put  in  new  (1)  whenever  it  becomes  so  fine  that 
it  packs  down  and  does  not  hide  the  grain;  (2)  whenever  it 
becomes  moist  and  damp,  due  to  foggy  weather  or  the  beating 
of  rain  into  the  house,  in  which  case  it  is  very  apt  to  produce  roup 
or  colds;  (3)  whenever  it  becomes  much  soiled  with  the  poultry 
manure. 

A  good  plan  is  to  start  in  the  fall  by  putting  about  two  or 
three  inches  of  litter  in  the  house  and  then  add  to  it,  a  little  every 
week  or  two,  thus  keeping  clean  litter  on  the  top  all  the  time.  In 
actual  practice  it  is  advisable  to  clean  the  litter  all  out  three  or 
four  times  each  winter,  but  this  depends  almost  wholly  upon  the 
kind  of  litter  used. 

What  to  use  for  Poultry  Litter. — Where  poultry  raising  is  car- 
ried on  in  conjunction  with  general  farm  operations,  there  is  usually 


WINTER  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  LAYERS 


273 


an  abundance  of  material  at  hand  for  use  as  litter,  such  as  straw, 
cheap  hay,  leaves,  or  cut  corn  stover.  Of  these  four  materials, 
grain  straw  is  undoubtedly  the  best;  leaves  crush  quickly  and  do 
not  hide  the  grain,  while  cut  corn  stover  is  rather  coarse,  the 
birds  have  a  tendency  to  eat  it,  and  this  often  produces  a  trouble 
known  as  "  crop  bound." 

On  the  large  commercial  poultry  plants  where  litter  must  be 
purchased,  one  method  is  to  use  planer  shavings,  which  can  be 
bought  by  the  bale,  mixed  with  the  same  proportion  of  wheat,  oat, 
or  rye  straw.  This  mixture  lasts  longer  than  straw  alone,  is  always 
loose  and  porous,  does  not 
pack,  and  the  droppings  dry 
up  quickly.  By  adding  a  lit- 
tle fresh  material  from  time 
to  time  a  well-ventilated  house 
will  not  need  frequent  clean- 
ing. 

Spraying  the  Interior  of  the 
House. — Before  the  birds  are 
put  in  the  laying  house  in  the 
fall,  and  again  each  spring, 
each  pen  should  be  given  a 
thorough  cleansing,  which 
means  the  removal  of  all 
portable  fixtures  and  placing 
them  in  the  sun  for  a  few 
hours,  as  well  as  the  spraying 
of  the  interior  of  the  house 
and  fixtures  with  a  good  dis- 
infecting solution  (Fig.  138). 
A  good  mixture  is  one  con- 
taining lime  to  whiten  the  house,  a  disinfectant  which  will  kill 
disease  germs,  and  kerosene  or  crude  oil  to  kill  mites.  This  is  very 
desirable,  as  it  accomplishes  three  purposes  with  one  application. 
(See  Chapter  XXVIII.) 

Careful  Attention  to  Details  Necessary. —The  poultryman  should 
always  bear  his  birds  in  mind  and  make  special  efforts  to  meet 
all  changes  in  weather.  Keep  the  house  as  dry  as  possible  by 
closing  the  curtains  and  windows  on  stormy  days,  especially  if 
the  wind  is  from  such  a  quarter  that  it  will  blow  directly  into  the 
house;  also  protect  the  birds  from  extremely  cold  weather  by  means 
18 


FIG.    138. — A  simple  and  efficient  disinfecting 
outfit. 


274  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 

of  properly  adjusted  muslin  curtains.  Frozen  combs  should  be 
particularly  guarded  against,  for  a  laying  flock  exposed  to  this 
condition  will  show  a  marked  decline  in  egg  production.  The 
birds  should  not  be  allowed  out  of  doors  when  there  is  snow  on  the 
ground  or  when  the  ground  is  wet,  for  wet  feet  and  the  eating  of 
snow  are  known  to  decrease  egg  production.  If  a  heavy  production 
is  desired  during  the  winter,  the  best  policy  is  to  keep  the  birds 
continually  confined,  regardless  of  weather. 

Care  of  Broody  Hens. — As  soon  as  an  individual  hen  has  laid 
a  number  of  eggs,  her  natural  tendency  is  to  try  to  incubate  them. 
This  instinct  is  much  more  pronounced  during  late  winter  and 
spring,  and,  if  a  continuous  heavy  production  is  desired,  it  is 
necessary  to  break  up  the  broody  habit  as  soon  as  possible,  for 
two  reasons.  If  hens  are  allowed  to  sit  continuously,  they  do  not 
begin  again  to  lay  for  a  month  or  more,  and  they  are  also  apt  to 
spoil  the  eggs  laid  by  other  hens  in  the  same  pen.  The  best  way 
to  break  up  broody  hens  is  to  confine  them  from  three  to  five  days, 
as  a  rule,  in  specially  constructed  coops  with  slatted  bottoms,  feed- 
ing them  light  rations  of  wheat,  with  plenty  of  water.  Withhold 
all  heating  feed,  such  as  corn,  and  keep  them  away  from  their 
natural  nests.  The  desire  to  sit  is  thus  more  quickly  discouraged. 
The  sooner  the  habit  is  broken  up,  the  sooner  the  birds  will  start 
laying  again.  Inattention  to  the  proper  management  of  broody 
hens  will  mean  a  large  number  of  them  in  the  nests,  especially 
during  the  spring.  This  will  greatly  curtail  the  egg  yield  and  will 
hinder  other  hens  from  laying  where  they  should. 

Summer  management  of  laying  birds  resolves  itself  into  three 
topics:  (1)  How  to  handle  the  birds  in  the  most  economical 
manner;  (2)  the  selection  of  birds  which  are  to  be  kept  over  for 
future  layers;  (3)  carrying  the  birds  safely  through  the  molt.  All 
these  matters  should  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  econ- 
omy of  feed  and  labor,  as  well  as  immediate  and  future  egg  pro- 
duction. 

Handling  the  Birds  in  the  Most  Economical  Manner. — As  soon 
as  warm  weather  comes  in  the  spring,  the  birds  should  be  permitted, 
as  much  range  as  possible,  since  this  supplies  them  with  an  abund- 
ance of  natural  green  feed.  Freedom  of  range  will  greatly  reduce 
the  amount  of  feed  required  and  will  keep  the  birds  in  much  better 
health.  When  it  is  impossible  to  pasture  the  birds  on  green  feed, 
it  is  necessary  to  grow  and  feed  it  to  them  in  the  form  of  a 
soiling  crop. 


SUMMER  MANAGEMENT  275 

Reduce  the  Ration  Gradually,  According  to  Range  Conditions.— 
Discard  all  special  concentrated  commercial  feed  if  it  is  possible 
for  birds  to  get  the  equivalent  from  home-grown  sources.  No 
sudden  changes  should  be  made  from  one  method  of  feeding  to 
another.  When  it  is  impossible  to  provide  summer  layers  with  an 
abundance  of  range  and  green  feed,  they  must  be  fed  right  through 
the  summer  practically  the  same  rations  which  they  received 
during  the  winter.  Extensive  forcing  of  layers  at  any  season  should 
be  discouraged,  as  it  is  apt  to  weaken  them  physically,  shorten 
their  term  of  profitable  production,  and  at  the  same  time  unfit 
them  for  breeding  during  the  breeding  season.  Feeding  for  forcing 
can  be  successfully  carried  on  during  a  few  of  the  winter  months 
without  injury,  but  not  in  the  summer.  The  birds  should  then  be 
given  a  rest  in  which  to  get  back  any  lost  vitality  or  vigor. 

In  the  management  of  the  summer  flock  an  important  requisite 
is  that  the  houses  be  cool  with  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  This 
can  be  secured  by  leaving  the  curtains  up  and  windows  open,  and 
by  admitting  cool  air  from  the  back  of  the  house.  Any  of  the  open- 
front  convertible  houses  can  in  this  way  be  made  into  desirable 
laying  houses  for  summer.  This  is  especially  important  in  low 
shed-roofed  houses  covered  with  paper,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  very 
hot  in  the  summer.  By  inducing  a  circulation  of  cool  air  during 
the  night,  the  birds  will  keep  in  much  better  condition,  and 
respond  with  a  larger  yield. 

Selection  of  Layers  for  Second  Year. — The  age  when  birds  are 
most  profitable  as  layers  depends  almost  entirely  upon  their  man- 
agement during  the  pullet  year,  and  upon  the  health  and  vigor 
of  the  birds  at  the  end  of  their  first  laying  season.  There  are  two 
general  methods  on  commercial  plants  regarding  the  holding  of 
birds  for  laying. 

The  first  one  is  to  keep  only  pullets  for  commercial  egg  pro- 
duction. They  are  brought  to  maturity  and  forced  for  continuous 
maximum  egg  production,  and  at  the  end  of  one  year's  laying  are 
disposed  of  for  meat.  A  start  is  made  again  each  year  with  an 
entirely  new  lot  of  layers.  This  method  necessitates  .the  hatching 
of  an  exceedingly  large  number  of  chicks  every  year,  and  great 
risk  is  run  in  the  danger  and  liability  of  late  hatches  and  poor 
broods. 

The  other  method,  which  is  quite  extensively  followed,  is  to 
keep  a  definite  number  of  birds  during  the  pullet  year,— say,  for 
example,  one  thousand.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  select  five 


276  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 

hundred  of  the  best  to  be  kept  for  egg  production,  and  bring  into 
the  laying  flock  five  hundred  additional  pullets.  Subsequently, 
the  older  half  of  each  flock  should  be  disposed  of  at  the  end  of  its 
second  laying  season,  and  five  hundred  pullets  brought  in  each 
year  as  new  layers.  All  things  considered,  this  system  is  un- 
doubtedly the  safest  and  the  most  productive  of  satisfactory  results 
on  the  average  egg  farm.  It  is  the  method  generally  used  on  the 
average  farms  of  the  country,  but  in  some  cases  the  selection  is 
much  more  rigid  than  here  indicated. 

It  is,  however,  true  that  the  greatest  number  of  eggs  are  laid 
during  the  pullet  year,  and  the  next  greatest  number  the  year 
following.  Each  succeeding  year  the  number  of  eggs  rapidly 
diminishes,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether,  under  average  conditions, 
it  is  profitable  to  keep  a  bird  for  egg  production  after  her  second 
year  unless  she  is  especially  valuable  for  breeding  purposes. 

It  is  well  to  inspect  the  birds  at  the  end  of  the  pullet  year,  and 
make  two  selections  during  the  summer, — the  first  one  before  ex- 
tremely warm  weather  begins,  and  the  other  before  the  hens  are 
put  into  laying  quarters  for  the  winter.  In  these  selections  the 
following  points  should  be  carefully  noted:  (1)  Discard  all  birds 
which  are  not  healthy  and  vigorous.  (2)  Discard  any  which  have 
not  grown  well  during  their  first  year.  (3)  Discard  any  which 
during  that  time  were  subject  to  disease.  (4)  Spasmodic  layers, 
as  those  which  lay  rapidly  for  only  a  short  time  followed  by  long 
periods  of  rest,  are  also  undesirable. 

Any  hens  which  are  not  in  good  laying  condition  at  the  first 
selection  of  the  summer  can  profitably  be  left  over  until  the  fall, 
since  there  is  then  an  exceptionally  good  demand  for  dressed 
poultry,  while  there  is  a  fairly  good  price  for  eggs  during  the  months 
of  August  and  September.  When  making  the  last  selection  in  the 
fall,  it  is  wise  to  withdraw  from  the  mass  5  to  10  per  cent  of  those 
which  more  nearly  approach  the  ideal  type,  these  being  the  most 
vigorous,  and  the  ones  which  have  proved  to  be  the  best  layers. 
They  should  be  put  in  a  special  pen,  separate  from  the  other  birds, 
and  mated  for  breeding  purposes,  for  it  is  only  by  selecting  and 
breeding  from  the  best  that  any  improvement  can  be  brought 
about. 

Care  at  Molting  Time. — Much  interest  has  been  manifested 
in  recent  years  in  the  subject  of  the  management  of  the  flock  dur- 
ing the  molting  period.  Generally  it  is  unprofitable  to  subject 
the  molting  flock  to  a  period  of  fasting  followed  by  a  period 


WHAT  CONSTITUTES  A  GOOD  EGG  YIELD  277 

of  heavy  feeding.  It  has  been  shown  that  during  the  fast  the  birds 
lose  weight  and  their  vitality  and  stamina  decline,  and  after  heavy 
feeding  has  been  resumed  it  takes  much  longer  to  get  back  the 
weight  that  was  lost;  this  is  usually  gotten  back  before  the  birds 
start  laying.  The  best  practice  is  to  feed  the  birds  on  a  normal, 
well-balanced  ration  throughout  July  and  August,  and  allow  them 
to  molt  naturally;  it  will  be  found  that  some  specimens  are  early 
molters  and  some  late.  The  late  molters  are  usually  the  heavy 
producers;  therefore,  in  making  the  last  selection  in  the  fall,  birds 
which  are  rather  ragged  at  that  time  will  usually  prove  more  profit- 
able as  layers  in  the  following  winter  than  those  which  molted 
and  got  their  new  plumage  very  early.  Where  limited  feeding  is 
the  rule,  the  egg  yield  is  immediately  shut  off,  and  the  balance 
of  the  summer  is  wasted  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  feeding  of  a  certain  ration  con- 
taining a  high  percentage  of  fat  or  oil  and  much  protein  will  have 
a  tendency  to  form  new  feathers  and  to  make  them  glossy  and 
attractive.  For  this  reason,  increasing  quantities  of  oil  meal  and 
sunflower  seed  are  recommended  at  this  time. 

Conclusions  in  regard  to  the  management  of  the  molt  may  be 
grouped  as  follows:  (1)  It  does  not  pay  to  force  the  molt  by 
fasting.  (2)  It  is  good  policy  to  encourage  the  hens  by  careful 
feeding  to  lay  during  the  late  summer  and  fall.  (3)  When  the 
hens  want  to  lay,  let  them  lay,  and  the  molt  will  follow  in  clue 
time  according  to  the  character  of  the  individual.  (4)  In  most 
individuals  the  molt  is  subservient  to  egg  production. 

What  Constitutes  a  Good  Egg  Yield. — The  exact  number  of 
eggs  which  a  hen  will  lay  in  a  year  varies  greatly  with  the  breed, 
and  with  different  individuals  in  the  same  breed,  and  it  cannot 
be  said  that  one  breed  is  always  a  better  egg  producer  than  another. 
The  strain  is  a  better  indication  of  good  production  than  the  breed; 
in  other  words,  it  is  the  breeding  back  of  the  individual  which 
counts.  The  individual  egg  yield  from  an  average  flock  of  birds 
will  vary  greatly,  ranging  from  100  to  150,  a  fair  estimate  being 
about  130.  There  are  many  exaggerated  statements  in  regard  to 
a  200-egg  strain,  but  a  family  of  birds  averaging  such  a  height  of 
production  is  yet  to  be  developed.  There  are  undoubtedly  heavy- 
laying  strains,  but  a  successful  egg  yield  depends  as  well  on  feeding 
and  management,  and  its  maintenance  or  increase  upon  future 
breeding  and  selection.  As  was  said  before,  the  profitable  egg 
yield  is  produced  during  the  winter  months;  a  commercially  profit- 


278  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 

able  yield  for  December,  January,  and  February  is  about  30  or  33 
per  cent;  that  is,  a  well-bred  flock,  properly  cared  for  and  kept 
for  egg  production,  should  lay  one-third  as  many  eggs  as  there 
are  hens.  During  the  spring  and  early  summer  it  can  usually  be 
raised  to  50  or  60  per  cent,  and  in  some  cases  even  higher  for  a 
short  time. 

Where  very  small  flocks  of  five  to  ten  birds  are  kept,  it  is 
sometimes  possible  to  get  exceptionally  high  individual  records, — 
often  as  high  as'  a  100  per  cent  egg  yield  for  the  flock  for  periods 
of  short  duration.  In  large  commercial  flocks  in  which  many  fowls 
must  be  considered  in  getting  an  average,  annual  egg  yields  over 
160  or  170  eggs  per  bird  are  exceptions  rather  than  the  rule,  and 
it  can  not  be  expected  that  whole  flocks  will  average  this  number 
or  anything  like  it. 

Improvements  in  Egg  Production. — The  efforts  of  the  poultry- 
man  in  managing  the  laying  flock  should  not  only  be  concentrated 
upon  present  production,  but  upon  means  and  methods  of  increas- 
ing future  production.  Improvements  in  this  line  necessitate  a 
close  study  of  the  individual,  for  it  is  the  individual  which  makes 
the  average,  and  a  few  poor  birds  greatly  reduce  the  average  of 
the  better  ones.  In  a  flock  of  one  hundred  hens,  it  will  be  found 
that,  on  the  average,  perhaps  10  to  30  per  cent  rarely  lay  an  egg 
during  the  profitable  months  of  the  year,  another  5  to  10  per  cent 
are  totally  barren,  the  remainder  being  fairly  good  egg  layers.  The 
best  way  to  obviate  this  is  to  select  or  weed  out  the  poor  layers 
and  keep  only  the  best.  It  often  proves  more  profitable  to  take 
one  hundred  birds  out  of  a  flock  of  one  hundred  and  fifty,  after 
which,  with  less  labor,  one  can  get  nearly  as  many  eggs  and  a  much 
more  profitable  yield  per  bird. 

Where  the  selection  is  not  made,  the  poor  birds  are  fed  at  the 
expense  of  the  better  ones.  Improvements  will  come  largely  by 
the  cooperation  of  three  factors:  (1)  Rigid  selection  at  the  end 
of  the  pullet  year  and  the  mating  of  a  breeding  pen  from  the  best 
birds.  (2)  By  trap-nesting  the  individuals  in  this  breeding  pen 
during  the  winter  and  early  spring,  and  hatching  future  layers 
from  males  and  females  that  are  themselves  from  prolific  layers. 
(3)  By  producing  relatively  early  hatches,  and  selecting  rigidly 
throughout  the  growing  season,  keeping  only  the  best  youngsters 
for  future  production. 

The  Keeping  of  Egg  Records. — Every  poultryman,  regardless 
of  the  number  of  birds  kept,  should  post  in  the  laying-pen  record 


REVIEW  279 

blanks  upon  which  to  record  daily  the  number  of  eggs  laid  and  the 
feed  consumed,  so  that  he  will  be  able  to  tell  at  any  time  whether 
or  not  the  flock  is  proving  profitable.  These  records,  if  carefully 
kept,  furnish  a  good  guide  to  feeding,  and  are  especially  useful  on 
large  plants  where  one  man  does  the  feeding  and  another  collects 
the  eggs.  They  are  also  of  value  in  revealing  any  disease  or  weak- 
ened conditions  of  the  birds,  which  is  indicated  immediately  by 
fluctuation  in  the  egg  yield.  In  addition,  such  records  will  stimulate 
interest  in  the  work,  and  quickly  bring  about  a  more  careful  study 
of  the  problem,  on  the  part  of  the  laborer  as  well  as  the  owner. 

Nest  Eggs. — China  eggs  should  be  used  in  the  nests,  simply  for 
the  reason  that  they  induce  the  birds  to  lay  continuously  in  the 
same  place.  If  it  were  not  for  their  presence  the  birds  would, 
after  all  the  eggs  had  for  a  few  times  been  removed,  seek  a  new 
place  to  lay,  usually  the  floor;  this  would  result  in  cracked  or  broken 
eggs,  many  being  entirely  lost.  China  eggs  are  good  to  use  in  con- 
nection with  trap  nests,  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  birds 
from  laying  on  the  floor. 

Egg  Eating. — The  habit  or  vice  of  egg  eating  usually  results 
from  the  birds  getting  a  taste  of  a  fresh  egg  when  one  has  been 
cracked  in  the  nest.  It  is  a  habit  difficult  to  break  when  once 
established.  The  following  conditions  will  tend  to  prevent'  their 
acquiring  the  habit  and,  possibly,  to  suppress  the  vice :  Darkened 
nests;  large  roomy  nests;  frequent  removal  of  eggs;  the  immediate 
removal  of  any  broken  shells  or  egg  contents. 

Patented  nests  are  advertised  which  allow  the  egg  to  roll  down 
out  of  reach  of  the  bird,  but  they  are  usually  undesirable. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  the  primary  and  secondary  objects  in  managing  a  flock  for  egg 

production. 

2.  Discuss  the  constant  relation  between  selling  price  of  eggs  and  tempera- 

ture or  season. 

3.  Upon  what  two  factors  does  profit  from  egg  production  depend? 

4.  Discuss  four  factors  which  enter  into  the  profitable  management  of  the 

laying  flock. 

5.  Discuss  the  fall  management  of  the  laying  stock. 

6.  What  is  the  best  time  at  which  to  place  pullets  in  winter  quarters? 

7.  Point  out  the  necessity  of  making  rigid  selection  at  maturity. 

8.  Discuss  size  of  flock. 

9.  What  are  the  essential  features  in  winter  management  of  the  layers? 

10.  Discuss  three  factors  which  are  necessary  to  promote  cleanliness  in  the 
laying  pen. 


280  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  STOCK 

1 1 .  What  is  the  most  practical  method  of  handling  broody  hens? 

12.  Name  the  two  most  important  considerations  in  summer  management. 

13.  What  is  the  profitable  age  of  birds  as  layers? 

14.  Discuss  the  selection  of  layers  for  the  second  year. 

1 5.  Discuss  management  during  the  fall  molt. 

1 6.  What  is  a  good  egg  yield? 

17.  Name  three  factors  which  tend  toward  improvement  in  egg  production. 

18.  Are  egg  records  valuable?     Why? 

19.  Of  what  use  are  china  nest  eggs? 

20.  Discuss  the  vice  of  egg  eating  and  state  how  it  may  be  controlled. 

References. — The  Yearly  Record  of  Three  Flocks,  by  H.  H.  Wing,  Cornell 
Bulletin  211.  A  Record  of  Six  Hundred  Hens,  by  Horace  Atwood,  West 
Virginia  Bulletin  115.  Cost  of  Egg  Production,  by  Henry  H.  Wing,  Cornell 
Bulletin  204.  Winter  Egg  Production,  by  H.  R.  Lewis,  Circular,  New  Jersey 
Board  of  Agriculture.  Poultry  Keeping  for  Egg  Production,  by  W.  P.  Brooks, 
Massachusetts  Bulletin  122.  Feeding  and  Management  of  Poultry  for  Egg 
Production,  by  J.  S.  Jeffrey,  North  Carolina  Bulletin  211.  Essentials  of 
Profitable  Egg  Production,  by  H.  R.  Lewis,  New  Jersey  Bulletin  244. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK. 

THE  primary  object  in  managing  a  pen  of  birds  for  breeding 
purposes  is  to  secure  fertile  eggs  in  season,  the  aim  being  not  to  get 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  eggs,  but  to  secure  the  most  abund- 
ant yield  compatible  with  a  large  and  uniform  size  of  the  eggs  and 
a  high  percentage  of  fertility. 

Breeding  by  Selection. — In  order  to  secure  this  and  at  the 
same  time  year  by  year  consistently  to  build  up  a  strain,  one 
point  must  be  carefully  borne  in  mind,  for  it  means  many  dollars 
a  year  to  the  farm  poultryman,  as  well  as  to  the  commercial  poultry 
breeder.  This  point  is,  special  matings  each  year  for  special  breed- 
ing purposes.  These  are  best  made  just  previous  to  the  breeding 
season,  usually  in  January  or  February,  by  selecting  the  finest 
females  in  the  flock  and  mating  them  with  choice  males  of  known 
pedigree.  Such  matings  should  be  made  early  enough  to  allow  at 
least  four  weeks  to  elapse  before  the  eggs  are  saved  for  hatching,  so 
that  the  effects  of  previous  matings  are  gone,  and  a  higher  degree  of 
fertility  will  be  assured.  To  secure  the  best  results,  the  breeding 
pens  should  be  relatively  small,  ranging  from  ten  to  fifteen  birds. 
Where  this  is  the  rule,  more  care  and  attention  can  be  given  to  indi- 
vidual breeders,  and  the  small  number  of  males  required  will  get 
along  better  than  if  too  many  are  in  the  same  pen.  Such  matings  are 
advisable  for  many  reasons,  the  following  being  the  more  important : 

1.  By  breeding  from  the  best  the  progeny,  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  heredity,  will  not  only  resemble  the  parent  in  many 
respects,  but  will  be  of  higher  type  than  if  the  entire  flock  had  been 
used  for  breeding. 

2.  Mass  breeding  does  not  assure  superiority;  in  other  words, 
when  eggs  are  selected,  year  after  year,  from  those  of  the  entire 
flock,  all  that  can  be  expected  is  to  maintain  in  a  succeeding  gen- 
eration the  same  degree  of  perfection  which  was  attained  by  the 
parent.    In  breeding  for  egg  production  natural  selection  is  of  no 
value.     In  fact,  experience  seems  to  show  that  it  tends  to  cause 
retrogression.    When  breeding  from  the  mass  many  fowls  will  fall 
below  the  standard  in  type  and  production,  and  these  will  work 

havoc  in  the  breeding  pen. 

281 


282  MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK 

3.  It  is  impossible  to  study  individuality  when  large  flocks  are 
used  for  breeding.    The  possibility  of  future  improvement  lies  in 
a  study  of  the  individual  and  efforts  to  raise  the  average  of  pro- 
duction; this  can  best  be  done  by  individual  matings  for  breeding 
purposes.    Such  matings  should  be  based  not  only  upon  external 
characteristics,  but  upon  production  as  well,  pedigree  record  blanks 
being  placed  in  each  pen  and  trap-nest  records  kept  during  the 
winter  and  spring  months.     With  a  small  number  of  birds  this 
necessitates  very  little  labor,  while  the  benefits  accruing  and  the 
interest  created  will  offset  the  slight  expense. 

4.  In  matings  of  this  kind  a  high  percentage  of  fertility  will 
be  realized,  from  the  fact  that  greater  care  can  be  exercised  in 
picking  both  the  females  and  the  breeding  male,  also  because  the 
results  will  be  better  if  one  or  two  males  are  confined  in  a  small 
pen  of  this  kind  than  when  many  males  are  allowed  to  run  with 
large  flocks.     It  is  also  much  easier  to  keep  track  of  the  condition 
of  the  breeders  and  to  eliminate  anything  which  might  tend  to 
infertility. 

5.  The  handling  and  selection  of  eggs  from  pens  of  this  type 
will  be  more  careful.     The  percentage  of  eggs  hatched  and  the 
resulting  progeny  depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  care  and  hand- 
ling of  the  eggs  after  they  are  laid.    Where  a  poultryman  has  a 
small  number  of  eggs  of  high  value,  as  is  the  case  with  these  small 
matings,  he  will  naturally  give  them  closer  attention  than  where 
he  has  to  handle  an  enormous  quantity,  which,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, are  good  only  for  market. 

Poultrymen,  when  breeding  their  prospective  layers,  should 
seriously  consider  the  advisability  of  making  special  breeding  pens, 
during  the  breeding  season  at  least.  It  is  still  better  to  make  them 
in  the  fall  and  keep  accurate  records  throughout  the  winter,  for 
by  so  doing  the  breeder  is  enabled  gradually  to  improve  the  quality 
of  his  birds  at  very  little  expense.  He  can  also  eliminate  the 
very  poor  layers  from  the  flock;  it  is  by  discarding  such  birds  and 
breeding  from  the  best  that  superiority  is  ultimately  brought 
about. 

Points  in  Selection  of  Breeders. — In  the  selection  of  desirable 
birds,  both  male  and  female,  for  the  breeding  pen,  the  first  con- 
sideration should  be  whether  the  resulting  progeny  is  to  be  used 
for  meat,  eggs,  or  both,  and  only  ideal  birds  in  these  respects 
should  be  chosen.  The  breeder  must  first  decide  upon  an  ideal 
type  and  bear  this  in  mind  when  he  mates  the  birds.  He  should 


BREEDING  BY  SELECTION  283 

base  his  selection  not  only  upon  the  external  appearance,  but  upon 
type,  as  well  as  the  color  of  the  eggs,  since  uniformity  in  this 
respect  is  important. 

Next  should  be  considered  the  ancestry  or  pedigree  of  the 
birds.  At  the  beginning,  owing  to  lack  of  records,  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  know  the  exact  ancestry  of  the  breeders,  and  external 
appearances  must  count  for  much;  but,  when  possible,  the  best 
plan  is  to  purchase  the  male  bird  for  this  foundation  stock  from  a 
reliable  breeder  who  is  known  to  carry  the  best  birds  of  the 
type  desired.  Even  if  he  costs  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  a 
good  male  means  much  to  the  future  progeny  and  will  be  a  profit- 
able investment.  It  is  often  said  that  a  good  male  is  worth  half 
the  flock,  but  he  is  worth  more  than  that,  for  even  in  the  first 
generation  he  means  fifty  per  cent  of  the  blood  of  the  progeny. 
If  he  should  be  prepotent  as  to  his  characteristics  and  is  bred  to 
his  daughters, he  represents  three-fourths  of  the  blood  of  the  prog- 
eny in  the  second  generation ;  and  so  on,  until,  through  line  breed- 
ing, uniformity  of  type  is  attained.  If  this  method  be  followed 
continuously,  it  is  possible  to  raise  fowls  inheriting  almost  entirely 
the  pure  blood  of  the  first  male.  After  selection  has  been  thorough, 
it  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  trap-nest  during  the  rest  of  the  year, 
as  records  show  that  the  winter  layers  are  the  most  prolific,  hence 
the  ones  from  which  we  should  breed. 

It  is  important  to  choose  for  the  breeding  pen  females  noted  for 
their  high  production  of  eggs,  which  fitly  represents  the  commercial 
worth  of  the  individual.  They  should  have  laid  their  eggs,  or  a 
large  proportion  of  them,  during  the  fall  or  winter.  The  male 
used  in  this  pen  should  be  descended  from  high  producers,  which 
means  he  should  be  the  son  of  a  prolific  hen.  In  this  way  high 
productivity  will  be  inherited  from  both  parents. 

Prepotency  of  the  pair  is  also  of  prime  importance;  they  should 
not  only  possess  the  desired  characteristics,  but  the  power  of  trans- 
mitting them  to  their  progeny.  This  trait  can  be  studied  for  a 
number  of  generations  by  means  of  pedigree  records,  and  is  shown 
by  the  resemblance  of  offspring  to  their  parents.  If  a  fowl  capable 
of  high  production  is  not  prepotent,  and  there  are  many  of  this 
type,  she  is  of  little  value  in  the  breeding  pen,  and  it  is  wise  to 
make  a  study  of  this  from  a  practical  standpoint. 

External  characteristics  should  be  considered,  yet  not  be  given 
greater  weight  than  the  functional.  For  instance,  birds  should 
not  be  introduced  into  the  breeding  pen  for  the  sake  merely  of 


284  MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK 

external  qualities,  nor  should  a  bird  be  discarded  from  the  breed- 
ing pen  because  her  color  markings  are  not  of  the  best.  But  so 
far  as  is  possible,  those  birds  should  be  selected  which  conform  to 
the  standard,  both  as  to  shape  and  color  pattern  of  plumage. 

The  health  of  the  breeding  birds  is  important.  None  should 
be  put  in  the  breeding  pen  which  show  signs  of  disease,  and  it 
should  be  the  rule  to  mark  with  color  bands  any  birds  in  the  gen- 
eral flock,  as  well  as  in  the  breeding  pen,  which  have  ever  been 
afflicted  with  disease;  for  such  birds,  even  after  recovery,  do  not 
make  good  breeders,  and  in  the  case  of  certain  hereditary  disease? 
there  is  always  the  danger  of  transmitting  them  to  the  progeny. 
Hence  the  health  of  both  male  and  female  in  the  past,  as  well  as 
the  present,  should  be  noted,  and  only  birds  of  good  constitution 
and  vitality  and  free  from  taint  of  disease  should  be  used. 

Age  of  Breeding  Stock. — The  age  at  which  hens  make  the  best 
breeders  is  the  second  or  third  laying  season.  At  this  time  they 
have  reached  maturity,  have  attained  their  maximum  develop- 
ment, they  produce  large  eggs,  hence  large  chicks,  and  the  breeder 
has  the  advantage  of  having  studied  their  individual  possibilities 
in  the  pullet  year.  All  things  considered,  yearling  hens  during 
the  second  laying  season  undoubtedly  make  the  best  breeders. 
With  males,  however,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  use  well-developed  cock- 
erels. This  is  often  done,  and  the  best  results  are  secured  by  using 
a  cockerel  of  a  relatively  early  hatch  but  full  maturity.  When, 
for  any  reason,  it  is  necessary  to  use  pullets  for  breeding,  they 
should  be  hatched  early,  fully  matured,  and  mated  with  old  cocks, 
not  cockerels. 

Pullets  as  Breeders. — The  mistake  is  often  made,  especially  by 
poultrymen  who  desire  to  hasten  matters  by  hatching  their  own 
birds,  of  using  immature  pullets.  This  is  always  poor  policy  unless 
the  pullets  are  fully  matured,  and  approximately  one  year  old. 
For  instance,  birds  hatched  early  in  January  and  February  may 
perhaps  make  satisfactory  breeders  next  year  in  March  or  April, 
but  it  is  rarely  the  case.  The  following  are  some  of  the  chief  reasons 
why  disaster  accompanies  this  practice: 

Where  pullets  are  used  as  breeders,  a  large  percentage  of  the 
eggs  set  are  infertile,  undoubtedly  as  the  result  of  immaturity. 
The  chicks  at  hatching  time  and  at  maturity  prove  to  be  small, 
and  the  size  of  the  chick  will  prove  to  be  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  egg. 

The  resulting  progeny  show  a  pronounced  lack  of  vitality,  both 


PROPORTION  OF  MALES  TO  FEMALES  285 

during  their  growing  period  and  at  maturity;  and  if  the  practice  be 
continued,  there  is  rapid  deterioration.  There  is  a  case  in  point 
where  broiler  raisers  made  a  practice  of  crossing  White  Wyandottes 
and  Light  Brahmas,  as  they  considered  that  a  better  broiler  was 
secured,  but  they  found  they  had  to  make  an  original  cross  from 
standard-bred  birds  every  year  in  order  to  secure  any  degree  of 
uniformity  in  the  resultant  chicks.  In  consequence,  they  were 
obliged  to  hatch  each  year  from  pullets,  and  it  was  invariably 
necessary  to  get  new  stock,  as  there  was  a  noticeable  loss  of  vitality 
and  decrease  in  size  of  the  progeny.  The  trouble  was  corrected  in 
a  large  measure  by  using  pure-bred  White  Wyandottes  for  the 
broiler  end  of  the  business,  and  hatching  from  yearling  hens. 

The  progeny  resulting  from  pullet  eggs  are  small  and  at  matu- 
rity do  not  attain  the  maximum  size.  This  is  due  to  their  early 
handicap  in  the  small  size  of  the  egg  and  of  the  chick  when  hatched. 
When  continued,  this  tendency  leads  gradually  to  a  decrease  in 
the  size  of  that  particular  strain. 

The  factors  enumerated  have  in  the  course  of  succeeding  gen- 
erations of  pullet  breeding  led  to  a  noticeable  deterioration,  which 
is  often  expressed  as  "  a  running  out  of  the  stock."  This  trouble 
can  easily  be  corrected  by  breeding  from  mature  birds  only. 

Proportion  of  Males  to  Females. — The  number  of  females,  and 
the  relation  between  females  and  males  in  special  mating,  depend 
upon  certain  conditions,  such  as  the  breed,  the  size  of  the  flock, 
and  the  season. 

Where  light,  active  egg  breeds  are  mated,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
maintain  as  great  a  proportion  of  males  to  females  as  when  the 
heavier,  slower  breeds  are  kept.  For  example,  one  Leghorn  male 
to  ten  females  is  ample  to  insure  a  high  fertility,  whereas  with 
the  heavier  breeds,  which  are  slow  and  of  less  nervous  tempera- 
ment, one  male  to  seven  or  eight  females  is  as  high  a  ratio  as  is 
conducive  to  the  best  results. 

Season  also  influences  this  question.  When  the  breeder  desires 
eggs  for  hatching  at  other  than  the  natural  breeding  season  of 
spring,  he  must  run  a  greater  proportion  of  males  in  a  flock  of 
given  size,  this  ratio,  however,  depending  upon  the  number  of 
eggs  being  produced. 

The  size  of  the  flock,  to  quite  an  extent,  also  affects  the  fer- 
tility. The  smaller  the  flock,  the  larger  the  number  of  males  neces- 
sary to  a  given  number  of  females,  and  the  larger  the  flock  the 
smaller  the  proportion  of  males.  The  best  practice  is  to  mate 


286        MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK 

them  according  to  a  well-established  scale,  and  study  the  resulting 
fertility.  Any  great  excess  of  infertility  will  probably  be  due  to 
poor  methods  of  breeding  the  birds,  rather  than  to  the  relative 
number  of  males. 

Care  During  Mating  Season. — A  few  points  in  the  care  of 
breeding  birds  during  the  breeding  season  must  be  specially  borne 
in  mind,  and  those  which  follow  are  of  paramount  importance. 

The  style  and  type  of  the  house  should  not  be  noticeably  differ- 
ent from  a  good  open-front  laying  house,  but  it  should  be  so 
planned  as  to  get  an  abundance  of  fresh  air  and  sunlight.  The 
extreme  open  front  is  probably  the  best  for  this  purpose,  as,  not 
being  used  during  cold  weather,  the  birds  need  no  protection  from 
cold.  Sunlight  in  the  house  is  most  essential. 

Plenty  of  room  is  needed.  Breeding  birds  should  never  be 
crowded,  for  this  will  prevent  some  of  them  from  getting  sufficient 
exercise  and  sunlight,  and  will  increase  the  tendency  to  disease  and 
parasites.  Moreover,  it  is  impossible  to  study  individual  type  and 
keep  a  careful  watch  on  the  health  of  the  birds  when  too  many  are 
crowded  into  a  pen  of  insufficient  size.  v 

The  birds  in  the  breeding  pen  should  be  given  plenty  of  exer- 
cise, and  this  can  best  be  accomplished  by  feeding  considerable 
grain  in  deep  litter,  or  by  varying  the  amount  of  mash  which  they 
eat,  by  the  length  of  time  which  the  hopper  is  left  open,  according  to 
their  body  fat.  Lack  of  exercise  tends  to  increase  deposition  of 
fat,  and  this  to  decrease  fertility. 

Feed  for  Breeding  Hens. — The  feed  required  by  the  breeding 
hen  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  laying  hen,  and  can  be 
supplied  by  giving  a  good  laying  ration.  But  a  few  important 
factors  must  be  emphasized.  The  feed  must  contain  an  abundance 
of  nutrients,  since  any  lack  of  these  will  decrease  the  egg  yield  and 
the  chances  of  fertility;  it  may  also  result  in  small-sized  eggs,  which 
is  an  important  and  undesirable  feature. 

Protein  in  some  form,  preferably  a  high  grade  of  beef  scrap, 
has  been  shown  by  experiments  to  be  invaluable  for  maintaining 
a  high  degree  of  fertility  as  well  as  for  promoting  a  good  egg  yield. 
Just  preceding  the  breeding  season  it  is  safe  to  give  as  much  as 
fifteen  or  twenty  per  cent  of  beef  scrap  in  the  dry  mash.  But 
previous  to  this  time,  or  during  heavy  winter  production,  forcing 
by  this  means  is  tabooed,  as  it  is  apt  to. lower  vitality  and  to  cause 
sterility  or  weak  germs  later  in  the  season. 

Green  feed  is  a  necessity.     Experiments  have  shown  that  it 


SELECTING  EGGS   FOR  HATCHING 


287 


increases  fertility,  and  the  birds  relish  it  in  large  quantities.  Where 
it  has  been  given  to,  or  withheld  from,  breeding  flocks  for  alter- 
nate periods,  the  effect  upon  fertility  has  been  shown  absolutely. 
This  advantage  is  approximately  from  eight  to  twelve  per  cent. 

The  feed  should  contain  only  a  limited  amount  of  carbohydrates 
or  fat-forming  elements,  especially  for  the  heavier  breeds,  since, 
under  normal  conditions,  they  have  a  tendency  to  take  on  flesh 
rapidly,  and  this  results  in  an  excess  of  fat,  a  decreased  production, 
and  accompanying  infertility.  Plenty  of  feed  and  care  in  the 
method  of  giving  it  are  most  essential. 

Collecting  Eggs  for  Hatching.— Eggs  laid  during  the  breeding 
season  are  to  be  used  for  hatching;  hence  much  care  should  be 
exercised  in  their  collection 
and  handling  (Fig.  139).  After 
mating,  it  is  well  to  wait  from 
two  to  four  weeks  before  sav- 
ing eggs  for  breeding  purposes, 
two  weeks  being  the  usual 
time,  but  in  the  case  of  heavy 
breeds  four  are  necessary  and 
safer  at  any  season.  (See  page 
281.)  It  is  well  to  collect  the 
eggs  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
thus  averting  the  dangers  of 
their  being  broken,  or  becom- 
ing extremely  dirty  by  a  num- 
ber of  hens  treading  on  them. 
It  also  lessens  the  danger  of 
incubation  being  started  by 
broody  hens,  and  in  cold  weather  of  the  eggs  being  chilled.  Any 
violent  motion  of  the  egg,  such  as  shaking  or  jarring,  should  be 
avoided,  as  this  is  apt  to  rupture  the  internal  membranes  and  make 
the  egg  useless  for  incubation. 

Selecting  Eggs  for  Hatching. — On  collecting  the  eggs  they 
should  immediately  be  sorted,  and  any  egg  unfit  for  hatching 
should  be  disposed  of  for  the  table.  Select  eggs  uniform  in  type, 
shape,  size,  and  color,  discarding  all  that  are  cracked,  extremely 
dirty,  badly  shaped,  or  which  have  a  rough,  thin,  or  irregular  shell. 
Extremely  small  or  exceptionally  large  eggs  should  not  be  used 
(Fig.  140).  This  careful  selection  of  eggs  for  hatching  means  the 
saving  of  money  in  the  course  of  a  season,  since  all  eggs  of  unsurt- 


FIG.  139. — The  egg-collecting  pail  should 
be  of  heavy  construction  to  avoid  breakage. 
A  nest  of  soft  material  may  be  placed  in  the 
bottom. 


288        MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK 

able  type  which  would  not  produce  living  chicks  can  at  this  time 
be  disposed  of  at  a  profit.  If  put  into  an  incubator,  they  would 
result  only  in  a  hatch  of  weak  or  malformed  chicks,  and  the  revenue 
which  might  have  accrued  from  the  sale  of  eggs  would  be  lost. 

Keeping  Eggs  for  Hatching. — Many  eggs  are  ruined  for  hatch- 
ing purposes  during  the  time  they  are  held  previous  to  incubation. 
Eggs  should  be  kept  at  a  relatively  low  temperature,  50°  F.  being 
the  most  desirable.  Experiments  show,  and  embryologists  tell  us, 
that  the  embryo  in  the  egg  begins  to  develop  at  a  temperature 
of  70°,  but  if  this  temperature  is  not  maintained  it  immediately 
dies.  During  this  short  period  it  will  not  have  attained  any  size, 
and  cannot  be  detected  by  candling,  but  may  be  classed  as 


FIQ.  140. — Desirable  and  undesirable  types  of  hatching  eggs.     Upper  row  quite  uniform 
as  to  size  and  shape;  lower  row,  too  long,  too  round,  or  with  imperfect  shells. 

infertile.  This  fact  undoubtedly  accounts  for  the  exceptionally 
high  percentage  of  apparently  infertile  eggs  on  farms  and  small 
poultry  plants  during  the  late  winter  and  early  spring,  when,  in 
order  to  keep  the  eggs  from  freezing,  they  are  placed  behind  the 
kitchen  stove. 

It  is  advisable  to  place  hatching  eggs  so  that  they  can  be  regu- 
larly and  carefully  turned  once  a  day.  The  embryo  floats  in  the 
upper  portion  of  the  yolk,  and,  if  the  egg  is  left  in  one  position 
for  a  considerable  time,  the  yolk  may  come  into  closer  contact 
with  the  shell,  and,  if  not  turned,  it  may  become  attached.  More- 
over, if  eggs  are  not  regularly  turned,  the  air  cell  will  assume  an 
abnormal  position,  since  the  fluid  in  an  egg  has  a  tendency  to 
settle  and  the  air  to  rise.  Eggs  left  in  one  position  for  a  consider- 


CARE  OF  YOUNG  BREEDERS  UNTIL  MATURITY        289 

able  time  will  show  air  cells  of  irregular  shape,  often  on  the  side 
of  the  egg.  The  result  is  that  the  chick  will  occupy  the  wrong 
position  in  the  shell,  and  in  most  instances  a  successful  hatching 
is  impossible. 

The  length  of  time  which  the  eggs  are  kept  previous  to  hatch- 
ing bears  an  important  relation  to  the  hatch.  Experiments  show 
that  the  longer  eggs  are  kept,  regardless  of  the  manner  of  keeping, 
the  smaller  will  be  the  percentage  of  hatch.  Eggs  set  in  from  two 
to  five  days  will  yield  the  highest  percentage  of  chicks.  Under 
average  conditions  it  is  not  desirable  to  keep  eggs  for  hatching 
longer  than  one  week,  but  if  they  are  carefully  turned  and  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  50°  or  below,  satisfactory  hatches  may  be 
obtained  after  keeping  them  even  three  weeks. 

Some  Causes  of  Infertility. — Since  infertility  proves  one  of  the 
greatest  sources  of  loss,  and  probably  depends  in  large  measure 
upon  the  breeding  stock  and  the  mode  of  handling  eggs,  it  is  well 
to  recognize  a  few  of  its  common  causes.  They  are  here  outlined 
as  follows : 

Immature  or  extremely  aged  breeding  stock,  the  former  being 
the  more  common  cause. 

Insufficient  time  between  mating  and  the  saving  of  eggs  for 
hatching. 

Weakened  vitality  of  the  breeding  stock 

Excessively  fat  breeders. 

Insufficient  exercise. 

Lack  of  green  feed. 

Lack  of  sufficient  animal  protein. 

Excess  of  females  to  one  male. 

Unsuitable  environment. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  causes  of  "  apparent  infertility  " 
or  death  of  the  germs:  (1)  Low  vitality  of  breeders;  (2)  keeping 
eggs  at  too  high  a  temperature;  (3)  keeping  eggs  too  long  before 
incubation;  (4)  insufficient  turning. 

Fertility  is  the  one  thing  above  all  others  which  the  breeder 
is  seeking,  especially  after  having  mated  his  fowls  for  breeding 
purposes,  usually  at  considerable  expense.  Want  of  attention  to 
any  of  the  above  factors  may  result  in  a  loss  of  this  important 
requisite. 

Care  of  Young  Breeders  Until  Maturity. — Birds  hatched  from 
high  producing  stock,  and  to  be  matured  for  breeding  purposes, 
19 


290  MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK 

require  attention  differing  somewhat  from  that  given  to  stock 
raised  for  production  only. 

Hatch  chicks  early,  to  give  them  time  for  full  development. 
If  this  is  neglected,  and  they  are  forced  to  premature  maturity, 
the  resulting  progeny  will  be  of  small  size,  and  this  will  be  per- 
sistent throughout. 

Brood  in  small  units,  so  that  the  individual  may  have  a  chance 
to  develop  to  the  utmost.  Where  breeding  in  extremely  large 
flocks  is  practised,  the  fowls  do  not  have  an  equal  chance  to  de- 
velop, some  of  the  smaller  ones  becoming  stunted  by  insuffi- 
cient feed  or  crowding,  when  they  otherwise  would  have  developed 
into  good  birds.  From  the  standpoint  of  economy  and  efficiency, 
in  the  commercial  flock  the  large  unit  is  practicable;  but  with  a 
few  birds  of  exceptionally  high  quality  and  value,  the  smaller 
unit  has  the  advantage. 

Give  the  growing  youngsters  free  range  where  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  natural  green  feed,  and  well  ventilated  coops  or  shelters. 

Separate  the  sexes  as  soon  as  practicable,  and  raise  each  inde- 
pendently until  maturity. 

Mark  indelibly  any  chick  which  shows  signs  of  weakness  or 
disease  at  any  stage  of  its  growth.  Any  that  are  malformed  or 
show  decided  lack  of  vitality  should  be  slaughtered.  Those  of  a 
type  unsuitable  for  breeding  purposes  should  be  placed  in  the 
laying  pens. 

Give  the  fowls  an  unrestricted  opportunity  to  develop  to  the 
highest  possible  degree,  since  when  fully  developed  and  matured 
the  breeder  has  a  flock  of  prepotent  birds  capable  of  turning  out 
the  best  progeny. 

Summary. — Poultry  breeding  is  a  natural  process,  and  arti- 
ficial conditions  must  be  adapted  to  its  requirements.  Standard- 
bred  birds  are  of  a  nervous  temperament  and  possess  great 
powers  of  production  and  reproduction,  but  this  indicates  that 
they  need  extra  care  and  attention.  Under  normal  conditions 
these  birds  lay  but  few  eggs  during  the  spring  season,  when  it  is 
easiest  to  hatch  and  rear  the  young,  their  sole  instinct  being  to 
reproduce  their  kind.  With  birds  under  domestication  the  idea 
is  not  only  to  reproduce  them  in  kind,  but  to  obtain  a  commercial 
product,  and,  in  order  to  develop  this  industry  to  its  highest  de- 
gree, man  has  transformed  the  fowl  into  a  "  machine."  Here  the 
conditions  differ  from  the  natural  instincts  and  habits  of  fowls, 
and,  in  order  to  run  such  a  machine  to  its  highest  efficiency 


REVIEW  291 

and  to  bring  about  steady  improvement,  constant  thought  is 
necessary.  One  cannot  expect  to  get  maximum  results  or  superi- 
ority in  his  flock  Without  more  or  less  continuous  care  in  selection 
and  mating. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  the  chief  object  in  managing  breeding  stock? 

2.  Discuss  the  desirability  of  selected  matings  for  breeding  purposes. 

3.  Discuss  six  points  which  should  be  considered  in  selecting  breeding  birds. 

4.  What  is  the  most  desirable  age  for  breeding  stock? 

5.  Give  five  disadvantages  resulting  from  using  pullets  as  breeders. 

6.  Discuss  conditions  regulating  the  number  of  males  and  females  in  the 

breeding  pen. 

7.  Give  three  features  which  require  special  consideration  during  the  mating 

season. 

8.  What  four  special  points  should  be  considered  in  feeding  breeders? 

9.  What  points  do  you  consider  of  special  significance  in  collecting  eggs  for 

hatching? 

10.  What  points  should  be  considered  when  selecting  hatching  eggs? 

11.  Mention  three  factors  which  affect  the  keeping  quality  of  hatching  eggs. 

12.  Give  nine  causes  which  tend  to  produce  infertility. 

13.  Mention  four  causes  of  apparent  infertility  or  early  death  of  the  embryo. 

14.  What  five  points  are  of  special  significance  in  the  care  of  young  breeders 

until  maturity? 

15.  Compare  the  wild  bird  and  the  domesticated  species  in  reference  to  re- 

production and  artificial  breeding. 

Reference. — Fertility  of  Eggs,  North  Dakota  Farmers'  Bulletin  251. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  FOWL. 

BIRDS,  considered  as  a  great  class  of  animals,  are  one  of  the 
most  clearly  denned  classes  in  the  animal  kingdom.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  types,  representing  different  forms,  sizes,  and 
habits,  yet  in  general  their  structure  is  very  similar.  Birds  are 
more  closely  allied  to  the  reptile  group  than  to  the  mammals. 
There  are  over  eight  thousand  species  in  the  class. 

The  fowl  is  a  warm-blooded,  air-breathing,  egg-laying,  feathered 
vertebrate,  with  four  limbs.  Those  in  front  are  for  flying  (which  use 
has  been  greatly  diminished  during  domestication),  while  the  hind 
ones  are  for  walking,  scratching,  perching,  and  swimming.  Since 
the  fowl  is  a  true  bird  and  is  organized  for  flight,  it  possesses  an  ex- 
ceedingly light  skeleton.  Its  muscular  tissue  is  capable  of  great  con- 
traction, and  its  respiratory  system  is  exceedingly  well  developed. 

The  Bird's  Skeleton. — There  are  four  marked  points  in  which 
the  bird's  skeleton  differs  materially  from  mammals : 

1.  The  extreme  lightness  of  the  bones,  making  flight  possible. 

2.  The  tendency  of  bones  to  fuse,  thus  giving  greater  rigidity 
to  the  body  proper. 

3.  The  adaptation  of  the  limbs  to  allow  of  walking  as  well  as 
flight. 

4.  The  great  length  of  the  spinal  column,  especially  the  neck, 
this  being  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  column  combined. 

The  bird's  skeleton  (Fig.  141)  is  very  compact,  much  more  so 
than  that  of  mammals,  and  the  bones  are  harder  and  whiter.  It 
contains  fewer  bones  than  the  mammal,  many  being  grown  to- 
gether to  form  one,  as  the  skull  bones,  the  dorsal  vertebra,  and 
the  tarsal  and  metatarsal  bones.  The  neck  is  very  long  and  flex- 
ible, giving  the  bird  great  latitude  in  movements  of  the  head.  The 
ribs  are  joined  in  the  middle  as  well  as  to  the  backbone  and  sternum, 
the  latter  being  highly  developed  to  furnish  the  seat  or  location 
of  the  muscles  used  in  flight. 

Wings. — Parts  corresponding  to  the  hands  and  forearms  of  the 
human  skeleton  are  found  in  the  wings  of  the  bird,  and  from  them 
are  developed  respectively  the  primary  and  secondary  wing  feathers. 
The  wings  are  carried  folded  on  the  back. 
292 


THE  BIRD'S  SKELETON 


293 


The  hind  limbs  of  the  bird  represent  more  modifications  and  a 
greater  number  of  bones.  The  tibia  is  the  principal  bone,  while 
the  most  noticeable  characteristic  is  the  fused  tarsus  and  meta- 


FIG.  141. — Skeleton  of  fowl.  1,  Upper  jaw;  2,  lower  jaw;  3,  nasal  cavity;  4,  eye  cavity; 
5,  skull;  6,  neck  vertebrae;  7,  scapula;  8,  clavicles  (wish  bone);  9,  digits;  10,  bones  of  fore- 
wing;  11,  ulna;  12,  radius;  13,  humerus;  14,  backbone;  15,  ribs;  16,  femur;  17,  acetabulum; 
18,  ischium;  19,  pygostyle  or  tail  bones;  20,  breastbone  or  sternum;  21,  tibia;  22,  tarso- 
metarsus;  23,  spur;  24,  rear  toe;  25,  toes. 

tarsus.  The  thigh  bones  are  exceedingly  short,  and  when  the 
bird  is  in  full  plumage  are  never  seen.  The  fowl  normally  has  only 
four  toes.  The  fifth  one  is  missing.  (The  Dorking  and  Houdan 


294  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  FOWL 

are  exceptions).  The  toes  end  in  claws  which  aid  in  scratching 
and  perching.  The  four  toes  are  arranged  with  three  in  front  and 
one  behind,  except  in  the  five-toed  breeds,  which  have  two  behind. 
The  spur  above  the  toes  is  most  developed  in  males  as  a  means 
of  defence. 

The  sternum,  or  breast  bone,  is  one  of  the  most  highly  developed 
bones  in  the  fowl's  skeleton.  It  is  very  large  and  projects  far  back 
beyond  the  ribs,  forming  a  large  part  of  the  abdominal  wall.  It 
is  so  situated  as  to  protect  the  vital  organs  lying  above  it.  There 
is  a  thin  blade  called  the  keel,  which  forms  an  attachment  for  the 
flight  muscles,  and  its  size  varies  greatly  as  the  sizes  of  the  wings 
vary.  Some  breeds  with  small  wings  have  no  incentive  to  flight. 
They  have  small  keels  and  a  correspondingly  small  amount  of 
breast  meat. 

The  two  clavicles,  commonly  called  in  the  human  skeleton  the 
collar  bones,  are  thin  bones,  the  lower  points  being  attached  and 
the  upper  slightly  spread,  thus  forming  a  spring  which  aids  in 
working  the  wings.  The  united  clavicles  are  often  called  the  "  wish 
bone." 

The  fowl's  head  is  small  in  comparison  with  other  body  parts, 
and  is  characterized  by  lightness  and  the  fusion  of  cranial  bones. 
The  jaws  are  commonly  called  mandibles  and  form  the  bird's  beak. 
Just  back  of  the  upper  mandible  are  the  nasal  cavities,  which  are 
relatively  small  and  open  by  means  of  small  slits  into  the  interior 
of  the  mouth.  These  slits  are  found  open  when  the  bird's  head  is 
down,  and  closed  when  the  head  is  elevated;  hence  the  necessity 
for  the  bird  to  raise  its  head  when  drinking,  to  keep  the  water 
from  running  out  of  the  nostrils. 

The  vertebral  column  of  the  fowl  is  characterized  by  the  great 
length  of  the  neck,  by  its  mobility,  and  by  the  rigidity  of  the  back, 
loin,  and  tail. 

The  pelvic  arch  is  composed  of  the  ilium  and  acetabulum  above 
and  the  ischium  coming  down  each  side,  forming  what  are  com- 
monly called  the  "  lay  bones  "  in  the  hen.  These  four  bones 
assume  various  positions  at  different  stages  of  the  laying  period. 

The  Physiological  Organization  of  the  Fowl. — It  is  well  to 
understand  the  elementary  parts  of  the  animal  structure  and  their 
relation  to  one  another.  These  are  the  cells,  various  kinds  of 
tissues,  organs,  and  their  resulting  system. 

A  cell  is  the  most  elementary  living  part  of  the  body.  There 
are  millions  of  these,  of  various  shapes,  according  to  the  tissues 


MUSCULAR  SYSTEM.  295 

they  form.  They  are  very  minute.  Each  living  and  growing  cell 
is  made  up  of  a  cell  wall  containing  a  mass  of  protoplasm  with  its 
nucleus,  cell  sap,  and  other  cell  contents.  Protoplasm  resembles 
the  white  of  an  egg,  but  may  be  jellylike  in  consistency.  Living 
cells  grow  and  multiply  in  large  numbers  together.  Those  of  one 
kind  or  structure  are  united  to  form  a  certain  kind  of  tissue. 

There  are  six  kinds  of  tissues  recognized  in  the  body:  (1) 
Muscular  tissue;  (2)  epithelial  tissue,  or  skin;  (3)  nervous  tissue; 
(4)  connective  tissue,  which  surrounds  other  tissues  and  organs, 
holding  them  in  place;  (5)  bony  tissue;  (6)  fatty  tissue. 

In  order  to  accomplish  a  definite  purpose  and  to  work  to  the 
best  advantage,  several  kinds  of  tissues  are  usually  associated 
together  to  form  organs.  For  example,  the  heart  is  a  group  of 
different  tissues  working  for  a  definite  purpose.  Each  organ  has 
a  work  to  perform,  which  is  closely  associated  with  other  organs 
working  in  cooperation  with  it.  Such  a  combination  is  called  a 
system.  The  following  systems  make  up  the  working .  parts  of 
the  fowl's  body:  Muscular,  digestive,  circulatory,  respiratory, 
reproductive,  and  nervous  systems.  The  nervous  system,  and 
others  of  minor  importance  to  the  poultryman,  will  not  be  dis- 
cussed here. 

Muscular  System. — The  muscular  system  has  a  double  func- 
tion-to perform  in  the  case  of  the  fowl:  (1)  To  furnish  the  means 
by  which  the  bird  can  move,  (2)  to  cover  the  bones  and  fill  out 
the  body  contour.  This  latter  function  tends  to  give  the  show 
bird  the  highest  degree  of  type  and  perfection  of  bodily  propor- 
tions and  the  standard  shape. 

The  character  and  extent  to  which  the  muscular  tissue  has 
been  developed  determine  in  a  large  measure  the  value  of  the  bird 
for  table  purposes.  The  character  and  form  of  muscles  in  any 
breed  are  largely  inherited,  but  they  can  be  influenced  by  feeding 
and  management.  For  example,  the  effect  of  close  confinement 
compared  with  liberal  exercise  on  the  structure  of  the  muscular 
tissue  is  easily  shown.  The  former  will  produce  soft  flesh,  fine  in 
texture,  and  relatively  free  from  connective  tissue;  the  latter  will 
produce  less  flesh,  coarse  in  structure,  with  an  increased  amount 
of  connective  tissue. 

Muscles  vary  greatly  in  size  and  thickness  in  different  parts  of 
the  body.  Those  of  most  importance,  from  a  commercial  stand- 
point, are  found  chiefly  on  the  breast  and  limbs.  The  former  are 
the  muscles  which  control  flight. 


296 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  FOWL 


The  Digestive  Organs. — The  digestive  system  is  one  of  the 
most  complex  combinations  of  organs  in  the  bird's  body  (Fig.  142). 


Tongue 
upper  bill  removed 


c.  Crop 

d  Esophagus 

&  J^ue  stomach 

f  Gizzard 

y  Duodenum 

h  Small  intestine 

i  Caeca. 

k  Rectum, 

m  Cloaca. 

o  Ziiser 

p  Spleen, 

r  Gall  bladder 
P&ncree^s 


FIG.  142. — The  digestive  tract. 


Teeth,  though  found  in  prehistoric  birds,  are  wanting  in  birds  of 
the  present  time.    The  digestive  organs  of  domestic  fowls  are  as 


CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM 


297 


follows:  (1)  The  beak,  or  mandibles,  for  picking  up  feed  and 
sometimes  cutting  or  tearing  it;  (2)  the  gullet,  through  which 
feed  passes,  after  being  moistened  in  the  mouth  with  saliva;  (3) 
the  crop,  or  temporary  receptacle;  (4)  the  stomach  (proventriculus), 
where  gastric  juice  is  secreted  and  mixed  with  it;  (5)  the  gizzard, 
a  strong  muscular  sac,  where,  by  means  of  small  stones  and  sharp 
grit  (serving  as  the  teeth  of  the  bird),  the  feed  is  ground  more  finely 
than  in  the  mouths  of  many 
of  the  larger  animals;  and  (6) 
the  intestine,  a  long  tube  which 
receives  the  pulped  material 
from  the  gizzard,  subjects  it 
to  the  action  of  several  juices 
from  the  pancreas,  the  liver, 
and  other  glands,  and  absorbs 
the  digested  and  dissolved  por- 
tions; the  undigested  residue 
passes  along  to  (7)  the  cloaca, 
where  it  mixes  with  the  waste 
materials  from  the  genito-uri- 
nary  canal,  which  empties  into 
the  intestine  at  this  point. 

Circulatory  System. — The 
circulatory  system  of  the  fowl 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  mam- 
mals, being  composed  of  a 
heart  with  four  cavities,  from 
which  the  blood  is  pumped  to 
all  parts  of  the  body,  through 
blood  vessels,  some  of  which 
conveynourishment,  while  oth- 
ers purify  the  body  by  carry- 
ing away  its  waste  material. 
The  blood  of  birds  is  about 
two  or  three  degrees  warmer 
than  that  of  mammals. 

The  circulatory  system  is  composed  of  two  distinct  circuits  or 
courses  which  the  blood  takes  in  passing  through  the  body.  The 
diagram  (Fig.  143)  shows  the  course  of  the  blood.  The  heart  is 
designed  to  pump  two  streams  of  blood  at  once,  its  left  side  pump- 
ing the  blood  through  the  body  and  the  right  side  through  the 


FIG.  143. — Circulatory  system  of  the  fowl. 


298 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  FOWL 


lungs,  just  as  in  the  human  system.    (Refer  to  text-books  on  physi- 
ology for  a  description  of  the  human  circulation.) 

Respiratory  System. — Breathing  is  carried  on  in  the  lungs.  The 
air  enters  these  through  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  which  is  a  long  tube, 
dividing  just  before  it  reaches  the  lungs  into  two  bronchial  tubes, 
one  of  which  enters  each  lung.  It  is  in  the  lungs  that  the  blood 
gives  up  the  poisonous  material  which  it  has  gathered,  and  takes 
up  its  supply  of  oxygen  to  carry  through  the  body.  The  lungs  are 

surrounded  by  large  air  sacs 
in  the  breast  and  abdomen, 
there  being  nine  in  all.  These 
increase  the  size  of  the  bird  in 
proportion  to  its  weight  and 
enable  it  to  fly  better. 

Reproductive  Systems. — 
The  female's  reproductive 
system  consists  of  two  main 
organs,  the  ovaries  and  ovi- 
duct. The  hen  has  two  ova- 
ries, only  one  of  which  is 
active.  In  general  this  re- 
s'embles  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
the  ova  (or  eggs)  varying  in 
size  from  small  specks  to  full- 
size  yolks,  when  the  bird  is 
in  condition  for  laying.  Each 
ovum  (or  egg)  as  it  comes  to 
maturity  enters  the  oviduct, 
where  it  may  be  fertilized  by 
the  sperm  of  the  male;  as  it 
passes  down  the  oviduct  suc- 
cessive layers  of  albumin  are 

FIG.  144.— Male  reproductive  system.          added,  and  finally  just  before 

being  laid  the  shell  is  put  on. 

A  description  of  the  formation  of  the  egg  is  given  in  Chapter  XVIII. 
The  reproductive  glands  of  the  male  bird,  called  testicles,  two 
in  number,  are  near  the  backbone  just  in  front  of  the  kidneys  and 
about  opposite  the  last  ribs.  These  secrete  the  male  sperm,  which 
is  transported  through  two  tubes,  called  vas  deferens,  to  the 
cloaca  (Fig.  144).  % 

The  Development  of  the  Senses.— The  fowl  has  a  well-devel- 


Cloaca 


REVIEW  299 

oped  brain,  but  the  senses  are  much  inferior  to  those  of  mammals 
in  general.  The  sense  of  touch  is  limited,  since  the  skin  is  covered 
with  feathers,  the  quills  of  which  end  in  small  bulbs  or  hollows 
under  the  skin.  The  sense  of  smell  is  not  very  keen,  while  the 
sense  of  taste  varies  considerably  in  individuals.  All  fowls  reject 
things  which  are  objectionable  to  them;  probably,  however,  this 
is  as  much  from  sight  as  from  taste;  but  it  is  clearly  demonstrated 
that  they  have  a  sense  of  taste  quite  well  developed,  since  they 
show  a  partiality  for  certain  kinds  of  feed,  whether  there  is  any 
great  difference  in  the  physical  nature  of  the  feeds  or  not.  Palata- 
bility  is  an  important  consideration  in  poultry  feeding.  The  sense 
of  sight  is  very  highly  developed  as  well  as  the  sense  of  hearing. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  a  physiological  description  of  the  domestic  fowl. 

2.  Name  the  leading  parts  of  the  bird's  skeleton. 

3.  Discuss  four  points  in  which  the  bird's  skeleton  differs  from  that  of 

mammals. 

4.  Discuss  briefly  or  define  cells,  tissues,  organs,  and  systems. 

5.  Name  several  tissues;  several  organs;  several  systems. 

6.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  muscular  system? 

7.  Locate  and  give  the  functions  of  the  various  organs  of  the  digestive  system. 

8.  Give  two  uses  for  the  circulation  of  blood  through  the  bird. 

9.  How  does  the  plan  of  circulation  compare  with  that  in  the  human  body? 

Describe  it. 

10.  Locate  and  give  the  use  of  the  respiratory  system. 

11.  Discuss  the  special  senses  in  fowls. 

Reference. — Ligaments  of  the  Oviduct  of  the  Domestic  Fowl,  by  M.  R. 
Curtis,  Maine  Bulletin  176. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN. 

THE  reproductive  organs  of  birds,  and  especially  of  the  domestic 
fowl,  are  among  the  most  complicated,  since  they  must  not  only 
produce  the  ovum,  but  must  enclose  it  in  a  protective  envelope 
or  sac,  and  supply  nourishment  for  the  embryo  when  growth  sub- 
sequently takes  place.  As  the  ovum  is  developed  after  it  is  out- 
side of  the  body,  this  elaborate  protection  is  necessary  in  order 
to  preserve  it  in  its  original  form,  to  retard  evaporation  of  water, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  permit  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  mois- 
ture. The  reproductive  organs  are  composed  of  the  ovary  and 
the  oviduct  (Fig.  145).  The  oviduct  is  divided  into  two  distinct 
parts,  one  secreting  albumin  and  the  other  the  shell. 

The  Ovary. — The  active  ovary  lies  on  the  left  side  of  the  body 
posteriorly,  close  to  the  backbone.  It  resembles  closely  a  bunch 
of  grapes  which  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  walnut,  when  the  ovum 
is  fully  developed,  down  to  that  of  a  pin-point.  The  ovum  corre- 
sponds to  the  yolk  or  yellow  part  of  the  egg.  All  hens  have  at 
maturity  a  certain  number  of  embryonic  ova,  which  represent  all 
the  eggs  or  yolks  which  it  will  be  possible  for  them  to  develop  dur- 
ing life,  the  rapidity  with  which  these  will  mature  depending  upon 
management  and  feeding.  The  development  of  the  ovum  is 
brought  about  through  an  excess  of  feed,  that  is,  material  beyond 
what  is  required  for  maintenance  and  growth ;  hence  egg  production 
cannot  attain  its  maximum  unless  plenty  of  feed  be  given.  By 
the  accumulation  of  yellow  or  yolk  the  ovum  is  brought  to  matur- 
ity, the  yolk  sac  or  calyx  distends,  and,  as  development  progresses, 
the  yolk  sac  becomes  detached  from  the  ovary  and  completely 
covers  the  ovum.  When  the  ovum  reaches  maturity,  the  calyx 
or  yolk  sac  gradually  recedes  along  the  white  stigma  line,  allowing 
the  egg  or  yolk  proper  to  slip  from  the  capsule,  at  which  time  it 
drops  into  the  expanded,  upturned  opening  of  the  oviduct.  The 
remaining  calyx  immediately  contracts,  rapidly  diminishes  in  size, 
and  is  soon  entirely  absorbed. 

The  oviduct  is  a  large  tube,  whitish  in  color,  which  starts  from 
a  point  just  below  the  ovary  and  ends  at  the  cloaca.  During  the 
breeding  season  it  becomes  much  enlarged,  and  is  covered  with  a 
300 


THE  OVIDUCT 


301 


network  of  fine  blood  vessels.  The  upper  opening  of  the  oviduct 
is  expanded  in  the  shape  of  a  funnel  to  facilitate  the  entrance 
of  the  ovum  when  it  emerges  from  the  yolk  sac.  The  duct  on  its 


Calyx  orjrolk  sack 


Lei-st  portion  ofduot  I 
opened,  showing  f 
completed 


Yolk 
/Itrtnel- 


Second, 

of  the 

where  the  silbumirt, 

zVs  formed 


Third,  portion  where 
\  the  >shell  is  added 


which  the 
z\y  expelled 

Vent  or  clo&ca 
FIG.  145. — Female  reproductive  organs. 

way  to  the  cloaca  lies  in  folds,  being  lapped  upon  itself  three  times 
before  it  finally  passes  into  the  cloaca. 

When  the  yolk  enters  the  oviduct  it  consists  of  a  yellow  mass, 
called  the  "  vitellus,"  enclosed  in  a  thin  membrane,  the  "  vitelline  " 
membrane.  Fertilization  takes  place  in  the  upper  part  of  the  ovi- 
duct before  any  albumin  has  been  added,  and  if  at  this  time  the 


302  FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN 

yolk  be  examined  there  will  be  found,  just  beneath  the  vitelline 
membrane,  a  small  circular  whitish  body,  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  which  will  always  float  uppermost,  no  matter  in 
what  position  the  egg  is  laid.  In  the  fertilized  egg  this  disk  has 
three  well-defined  areas, — an  outer  white  rim,  within  which  is  a 
clear  zone,  and  in  the  centre  of  this  zone  a  somewhat  elongated 
structure  which  is  the  embryo  itself.  These  three  parts  constitute 
what  is  known  as  the  blastoderm  of  the  hen's  egg,  the  part  whose 
function  is  reproduction;  all  the  rest  of  the  egg  is  directly  utilized 
for  nutrition  and  protection. 

The  passage  of  the  egg  down  the  oviduct,  from  this  time  on, 
is  marked  by  the  following  processes : 

By  the  muscular  contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  oviduct,  the 
yolk  is  propelled  to  the  cloaca.  The  passage  of  the  yolk  stimulates 
the  walls  of  the  duct  to  secrete  successive  layers  of  albumin.  The 
first  layer  is  thick,  and  has  thickened  portions  which  are  fastened 
to  the  opposite  poles  of  the  yolk,  to  hold  it  in  place.  These  thick- 
ened portions  are  called  chalazae;  they  are  heavy  twisted  threads 
of  albumin.  After  the  thick  layer  of  albumin  two  layers  are  added, 
each  of  which  is  thinner  and  more  watery  than  the  preceding  one. 
When  the  egg  reaches  the  lower  or  contracted  part  of  the  oviduct, 
two  very  tenacious  but  thin  layers  of  albumin  are  added,  to  form 
the  inner  and  outer  shell  membranes.  The  air  cell,  which  is  always 
perceptible  at  the  larger  end  of  the  fully  developed  egg,  is  not 
present  at  first,  but  is  formed  by  the  evaporation  of  the  fluids  of 
the  albumin  and  the  entrance  of  atmospheric  air  to  replace  these 
fluids  after  the  egg  is  laid.  Just  before  the  egg  is  discharged  into 
the  cloaca,  it  passes  through  a  section  of  the  oviduct  where  the 
shell  is  added,  in  the  form  of  a  coating  of  thin  liquid  secretion 
containing  lime,  which  hardens  quickly. 

The  perfect  egg  with  its  hardened  shell  is  retained  in  the  cloaca 
a  short  time  before  being  laid.  The  power  to  hold  the  egg  in  the 
cloaca  is  under  the  control  of  the  bifid,  so  that,  if  she  is  frightened 
from  her  nest  or  unable  to  reach  it,  she  can  retain  the  egg  for  some 
time,  the  exact  period  varying  with  individuals. 

The  parts  of  the  completed  egg  are  the  shell,  shell  membranes, 
albumin,  and  yolk  (Fig.  146).  The  use  of  each  is  discussed  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 

The  shell  is  the  outer  envelope  of  the  egg,  and  its  function  is 
primarily  that  of  protection.  Soft-shelled  eggs  are  those  that  have 
either  no  shell  or  else  a  very  thin  one.  This  is  due  to  a  deficiency 


THE  PARTS  OF  THE  COMPLETED  EGG 


303 


of  lime  salts  in  the  feed,  hence  the  necessity  of  supplying  lime.  It 
is  estimated  that  one  hen  laying  100  eggs  of  average  size  will  pro- 
duce in  a  year  about  22  ounces  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  bird  gets 
this  large  amount  of  lime  from  such  materials  as  shells,  dust,  stones, 
and  pieces  of  bone,  which  it  constantly  picks  up  when  at  liberty; 
if  confined,  oyster  shell  is  given  to  supply  the  deficiency.  The  egg- 
shell itself  is  composed  chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  a  little  animal  matter.  It  is  extremely  porous,  hence 
permeable  by  air,  which  is  needed  to  supply  oxygen  to  the  embryo 
during  incubation.  Microscopic  examination  reveals  thousands  of 


Blastoderm. 


outer  shell- 

membrane. 


Vlteline  membrane 


Inner  shell  membrane. 
FIG.   146. — Parts  of  the  completed  egg. 

minute  pores  in  the  shell,  by  means  of  which  evaporation  is  going 
on  constantly  from  the  time  of  laying.  The  degree  of  this  evapora- 
tion is  a  sure  indication  of  the  age  of  the  egg  or  the  conditions 
under  which  it  has  been  kept.  Evaporation  proceeds  much  more 
rapidly  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold,  and  in  dry  air  than  in  moist; 
hence  the  difficulty  of  keeping  eggs  fresh  for  any  length  of  time 
in  summer.  This  time  could  be  greatly  increased  if  it  were  pos- 
sible to  close  these  pores  or  openings  and  thus  stop  evaporation, 
which,  however,  would  make  the  egg  unfit  for  hatching. 

Shell  Membranes. — Immediately  under  the  shell  are  two  mem- 
branes, called  the  inner  and  outer  shell  membranes.  Both  of 
these  adhere  closely  to  the  shell,  the  outer  one  being  in  direct  con- 


304  FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN 

tact,  while  the  inner  one  is  adherent  to  the  outer.  At  the  large 
end,  however,  they  are  separate,  and  form  a  small  cavity  or  sac 
known  as  the  air  cell.  This  is  filled  with  air  which  has  been  drawn 
into  the  egg  owing  to  the  evaporation  of  the  liquids,  the  size  of 
the  air  cell  increasing  as  the  age  of  the  egg  increases.  If  this  cell 
is  found  in  any  place  but  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  it  usually  denotes 
that  the  egg  has  been  kept  for  some  time,  and  has  not  been  turned ; 
thus  the  liquids  settle  and  force  the  air  to  the  highest  point. 

Albumin. — Next  is  seen  the  albumin  or  white  of  the  egg.  This 
is  a  translucent  liquid  without  definite  structure,  and,  in  the  fresh 
egg,  free  from  smell  and  taste.  The  albumin  is  easily  coagulated 
by  heat,  only  about  140  degrees  being  required.  It  is  soluble 
in  water.  Under  chemical  analysis  albumin  is  rather  complex, 
being  composed  of  varying  proportions  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  sul- 
phur, phosphorus,'  and  carbon.  The  albumin  can  be  readily 
divided  into  three  distinct  layers;  a  thin  outer  coat,  a  thicker 
middle  layer,  and  a  very  much  thickened  inner  stratum.  In  the 
latter  can  be  found  the  chalazse,  which  are  thickened  strings  or 
cords  of  albumin,  having  an  outer  terminus  in  the  outer  layer  of 
albumin,  and  an  inner  securely  interwoven  in  and  around  the  yolk; 
they  run  lengthwise  of  the  egg,  are  twisted  in  opposite  directions, 
and  hold  the  yolk  in  place.  In  appearance  they  resemble  twisted 
cords.  The  albumin  has  two  distinct  functions;  the  first  is  that 
of  protection,  by  forming  a  thick  layer  of  material  around  the 
germ,  at  the  same  time  that  it  furnishes  the  material  in  which  it 
floats,  thus  protecting  it  from  shocks  which  otherwise  might  prove 
fatal.  The  second  purpose  is  that  it  provides  material  which  goes 
directly  into  the  formation  of  tissue  for  the  embryo. 
>,  The  Yolk. — The  yolk  or  ovum  may  be  called  the  most  import- 
ant part  of  the  egg,  since  it  contains  within  its  outer  wall,  or  vitel- 
line  membrane,  the  germ  or  embryo  and  also  the  nourishment  of 
the  growing  embryo.  The  yolk  is  nearly  round,  and  light  yellow 
in  color,  the  degree  or  intensity  of  color  varying  with  the  character 
of  the  feed.  In  composition  the  yolk  is  considerably  richer  than 
the  albumin,  especially  in  phosphate  of  lime,  there  being  but  a 
trace  in  the  albumin.  The  yolk  is  composed  of  two  distinct  por- 
tions^, arranged  in  concentric  rings  or  layers,  one  being  light  in 
color  and  not  coagulable  upon  the  addition  of  heat,  the  other 
darker  yellow  in  color  and  easily  coagulable  at  a  high  temperature. 
In  the  lighter  portion  of  the  yolk  is  a  hollow  or  indentation,  in  the 
upper  part  of  which,  and  next  to  the  vitelline  membrane,  lies  the 


MALFORMED  EGGS  AND  THEIR  CAUSES  305 

germ,  which  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  its  whitish  color  and 
circular  shape. 

The  function  of  the  yolk  is  to  nourish  the  chick  for  the  first 
few  hours  after  hatching  and  during  the  early  stages  of  its  growth. 
It  is  just  as  essential  to  the  young  chick  as  is  the  colostrum  to  the 
calf.  It  supplies  nutrients  in  easily  digestible  form,  at  the  same 
time  exerting  a  laxative  influence  which  starts  the  digestive 
processess. 

Composition  of  the  Egg. — Aside  from  its  shell,  and  being  funda- 
mentally a  chick,  the  hen's  egg  resembles  in  its  composition  the 
adult  bird.  Analysis  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  egg,  exclusive  of 
the  shell,  shows  the  following  proportion  of  constituents,  water 
not  considered:  49.8  protein;  3.4  ash;  38.5  fat. 

Considering  the  total  dry  matter  in  the  whole  egg,  shell  in- 
cluded, we  find  the  proportions  to  be:  38.5  protein;  35.6  ash; 
25.4  fat. 

A  fresh-laid  egg  with  a  good  sound  shell,  including  water, 
shows  the  following  analysis:  13.2  protein;  11.4  shell,  0.8  other 
ash;  8.9  fat;  65.7  water. 

The  ash  found  in  the  egg,  aside  from  the  shell,  is  rich  in  phos- 
phate. The  shell  consists  almost  entirely  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

Malformed  Eggs  and  their  Causes. — Soft-shelled  eggs  are  due 
either  to  the  absence  of  shell-forming  material  in  the  feed  or  to 
disease  in  the  lower  part  of  the  oviduct  which  results  in  an  insuffi- 
cient secretion  of  lime  salts.  In  rare  cases,  however,  they  may  be 
caused  by  the  fowls  not  eating  enough  of  shell-forming  material, 
even  when  an  abundant  supply  is  available.  Sometimes  the  bird 
is  too  fat,  and  this  results  in  an  absence  of  muscular  tonicity,  the 
egg  being  passed  down  the  oviduct  so  rapidly  that  the  secretions 
are  not  supplied  in  sufficient  amount. 

In  the  ordinary  course  of  eggs  down  the  oviduct,  they  should 
mature  at  such  times  that  only  one  will  be  laid  at  a  time;  but  in 
consequence  of  improper  feed,  usually  too  much  of  carbohydrates 
or  fat,  the  bird  deposits  excessive  fat,  the  organs  contract  and  do 
not  permit  the  free  passage  of  the  ovum,  finally  one  of  two  things 
may  result.  Two  ova  may  pass  into  the  oviduct  nearly  at  the 
same  time,  or  one  may  be  held  near  the  upper  end  until  another  is 
formed  there,  when  the  combined  force  of  the  two  will  propel 
them  down  the  oviduct,  this  resulting  in  an  egg  being  laid  with 
two  yolks, — the  commonly  seen  double-yolked  egg,  which  is  usually 
of  excessive  size  because  of  the  twin  yolks. 
20 


306 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN 


Another  peculiar  condition  which  is  often  interesting  to  the 
uninitiated  is  the  presence  of  a  perfectly  formed  egg  within  another 
egg.  This  is  due  .to  the  fact  that,  by  the  contraction  of  the  ovi- 
duct, the  completed  egg  has  been  forced  back  into  the  albumin- 
secreting  section  of  the  duct  after  being  coated  by  the  shell  liquid. 
It  remains  there  until  it  is  met  by  another  yolk,  when  the  two 
pass  together  through  the  uterus,  or  shell-forming  part  of  the  ovi- 
duct, and  the  entire  mass  receives  another  shell. 

Extremely  small  eggs  are  common  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a 
laying  period;  this  is  in  part  due  to  a  diminution  in  the  size,  hence 
in  the  lessened  secreting  power,  of  the  oviduct. 


FIG.  147. — Abnormal  eggs  shown  in  comparison  with  a  normal  one. 
form  is  due  to  the  contraction  of  the  oviduct. 


The  elongated 


Distorted  and  misshapen  eggs  are  accounted  for  by  a  diseased 
condition  of  the  lower  part  of  the  oviduct  and  an  accompanying 
contraction  which  prevents  the  expansion  necessary  when  the  egg 
leaves  the  oviduct  and  enters  the  cloaca ;  consequently,  it  is  forced 
through  a  small  opening  and,  as  the  shell  is  soft,  is  compressed 
into  peculiar  or  elongated  shape.  These  malformations  are  largely 
the  effects  of  domestication,  and  are  rare  when  the  flock  receives 
proper  care  and  feeding  (Fig.  147). 

Fertile  Eggs. — Every  egg,  whether  fertile  or  not,  contains  the 
female  germ,  which,  however,  cannot  develop  or  grow  until  it  has 
been  fertilized  by  the  male  germ.  The  latter  is  contained  in  a 


FORMATION  OF  THE  CHICK  307 

cavity  at  the  upper  end  of  the  oviduct,  and  there,  as  the  naked 
yolk  passes  into  the  oviduct,  before  albumin  has  been  added,  the 
necessary  union  takes  place. 

It  is  a  common  but  mistaken  belief  among  the  inexperienced 
that  a  male  bird  in  the  pen  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  eggs. 
This  is  true  so  far  as  the  laying  of  fertile  eggs  is  concerned;  and, 
while  it  is  true  that  the  primary  object  of  egg  production  is  repro- 
duction, yet  impregnation  is  unnecessary  for  the  production  of  the 
egg,  and  hens  will  lay  just  as  many  eggs  when  no  male  bird  runs 
with  the  flock  as  they  will  with  one.  In  fact,  it  is  becoming  a 
rule  on  the  larger  egg  farms  to  produce  infertile  eggs  for  market, 
since  they  are  less  likely  to  spoil,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  the 
germ  developing  and  ruining  the  eggs  for  eating.  Fertilization  is 
not  an  incentive  to  egg  production  among  domestic  fowls. 

The  egg,  then,  is  a  productive  sac  surrounding  a  female  germ 
cell,  which  may  or  may  not  be  fertilized.  In  the  latter  case  the 
egg  is  termed  infertile  and  cannot  possibly  be  hatched,  because  to 
produce  life  there  must  be  the  union  of  the  male  and  female 
germ  cells. 

Formation  of  the  Chick. — The  first  stage  in  the  development 
of  the  embryo  takes  place  before  the  egg  is  laid,  probably  due  to 
the  heat  from  the  bird's  body.  This  change  is  termed  "  segmen- 
tation," and  results  in  the  multiplication  of  cells  which  form  a 
cap  over  the  germ  vesicle  and  a  group  of  cells  under  it.  In  the 
normal  egg,  development  is  arrested  at  this  stage,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  heat  is  necessary  to  renew  it  after  the  egg  is  laid. 

After  segmentation  and  application  of  the  right  degree  of  heat, 
incubation  begins.  The  germinal  disk  divides  into  two  layers, 
between  which  a  third  stratum  soon  forms.  The  upper  layer 
(called  the  epiblast)  produces  ultimately  the  skin,  brain,  spinal 
cord,  eye,  and  internal  ear.  From  the  lower  layer  (hypoblast)  is 
formed  the  lining  of  the  digestive  tract,  while  from"  the  middle 
layer  (mesoblast)  are  developed  all  the  other  organs,  such  as  bones, 
nerves,  and  muscles.  This  middle  layer  thickens  rapidly,  forming 
two  parallel  ridges  running  lengthwise  of  the  germ,  with  a  groove 
between  them  which  is  termed  the  medullary  canal;  the  walls  of 
this  groove  gradually  extend  and  finally  meet,  forming  a  tube  or 
neural  groove,  in  which  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  develop  later. 

The  notochord  just  below  the  tube. can  be  distinguished  from 
the  first  day  of  incubation.  It  marks  out  the  future  bony  axis  of 
the  body,  or  the  vertebral  column.  From  the  notochord  are 


308 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN 


formed  certain  lateral  plates,  which  later  form  the  ribs.  From 
the  above  brief  description  it  is  evident  that  even  during  the  first 
day,  many  of  the  important  structures  of  the  body  are  clearly 
outlined  (Fig.  148). 

During  the  second  day  of  incubation  the  remaining  important 
structures  take  shape,  and  those  already  formed  develop  further; 
there  is  a  decided  increase  in  the  number  of  the  protovertebrse ; 


/  forebroiin 

2  ffidbrain, 

3  Ifindbrain, 

4  Auditory  pit 

5  Vitelin&  vein 
G  future 


7  Medullary 

8  Tail  fold 


FIG.   148. — Chick  embryo  thirty-six 
hours  old. 


FIG.    149. — Chick  embryo  three 
days  old. 


the  tubular  heart  and  larger  blood  vessels  are  formed.  Most 
noticeable  of  all  is  the  development  in  the  region  of  the  head  of  the 
three  cerebral  vesicles  at  the  extremity  of  the  neural  groove ;  these 
are  called  the  anterior,  middle,  and  posterior  vesicle.  In  front  of 
them  the  developing  cerebrum  may  be  seen.  The  eye  or  optic 
vesicle  develops  from  the  front  cerebral  vesicle,  while  the  rudi- 
mentary ear  and  the  auditory  pit  are  formed  from  the  posterior 
vesicle.  The  early  formation  of  the  heart  and  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  vascular  system  are  important  features  of  the  second 


FORMATION  OF  THE  CHICK  309 

day's  growth;  these  are  essential  for  the  nourishment  of  the  embryo, 
hence  they  are  early  active,  delivering  a  constant  blood  stream. 

The  progress  during  the  third  day  (Fig.  149)  is  in  the  nature  of 
continued  development  of  structures  already  formed  rather  than 
in  the  formation  of  new  ones.  Up  to  this  time  the  embryo  has 
been  lying  face  downward,  but  it  now  turns  on  its  left  side  with 
the  head  bent  downward.  The  vitelline  circulation  is  completed, 
the  heart  is  subdivided  and  further  developed,  and  additional 
arteries  and  veins  are  formed.  Some  of  the  special  senses  are  now 
formed  or  developed ;  among  the  most  noticeable  are  the  formation 
of  the  lens  of  the  eye  and  the  development  of  the  nasal  pits.  The 
cerebral  hemispheres  are  more  clearly  defined,  the  hindbrain  sepa- 
rates into  the  cerebellum  and  medulla  oblongata,  and  many  of  the 
larger  nerves  branch  out  from  the  nerve  centres.  The  alimentary 
canal  increases  in  size  and  its  parts  are  more  clearly  differentiated ; 
the  oesophagus,  stomach,  and  duodenum  becoming  well  defined. 
The  lungs  now  make  their  appearance  as  an  outgrowth  from  the 
alimentary  tract.  By  the  third  day  the  allantois  can  be  outlined; 
it  is  a  temporary  membranous  structure  closely  associated  with 
the  alimentary  tract,  and  from  it  is  soon  developed  a  complete 
system  of  blood  vessels  which  carry  blood  to  and  fro.  On  the 
ninth  day  it  is  well  developed,  and  can  be  seen  spreading  over 
the  back  of  the  embryo,  close  to  the  shell.  It  is  the  medium  through 
which  respiration  is  effected  in  the  embryo,  and  at  hatching  time 
it  shrivels  up  and  is  cast  off. 

The  fourth  day  is  characterized  by  a  rapid  increase  in  the  size  of 
the  embryo,  combined  with  a  noticeable  diminution  in  the  amount 
of  albumin,  and  the  embryo  lies  very  close  to  the  shell.  The  vascu- 
lar area  at  this  time  is  about  one  inch  in  diameter  and  carries  an 
increasing  amount  of  blood.  The  body  proper  develops  rapidly,  not 
only  in  size  but  in  the  formation  of  the  limbs,  the  legs  being  short 
and  thick,  while  the  wings  are  long  and  slender.  In  the  female 
rudimentary  sexual  organs  make  their  appearance  on  this  day. 

From  the  ffth  day  the  growing  embryo  reveals  development 
rather  than  the  formation  of  structures,  since  these  are  now  estab- 
lished in  greater  or  less  degree.  On  the  fifth  day,  certain  cartilaginous 
processes  can  be  detected,  which  subsequently  develop  into  bones. 

The  sixth  and  seventh  days  mark  that  special  development  in 
the  embryo  of  the  fowl  which  is  to  distinguish  it  from  that  of  a 
mammal  or  reptile,  for  in  the  first  four  or  five  days  the  develop- 
ment of  all  vertebrates  is  very  similar.  After  this  time  the  more 


310  FORMATION  OF  THE  EGG  AND  CHICKEN 

pronounced  specializations  are  the  definite  formation  of  body  walls 
and  a  rudimentary  growth  of  feathers.  At  this  period  the  white 
or  albumin  has  practically  disappeared.  The  beak  is  formed,  and 
gives  the  embryo  a  distinctly  birdlike  appearance.  The  head  is 
proportionately  large,  and  the  eyes  extremely  so.  The  body  is 
very  bulky,  owing  to  the  large  size  of  the  heart  and  liver.  The 
legs  have  increased  greatly  in  size,  and  the  division  of  the  extrem- 
ities into  toes  is  very  marked.  The  yolk  sac,  while  yet  large,  is 
very  flabby,  from  the  absorption  of  nutriment. 

The  feathers  may  be  distinctly  seen  on  the  ninth  day.  They 
are  enclosed  in  a  small  sac,  in  which  they  grow  to  about  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length  before  hatching  time,  but  the  sac  is 
not  broken  until  then.  By  the  thirteenth  day  the  beak  and  nails 
have  taken  on  a  hard,  horny  appearance. 

Motion  can  be  discerned  in  the  embryo  on  about  the  sixth  day, 
but  it  is  very  slight,  and  there  is  no  pronounced  movement  of  the 
entire  embryo  until  the  fourteenth  day.  Up  to  this  latter  time  the 
chick  has  been  lying  with  its  body  at  right  angles  to  the  long  axis 
of  the  egg.  Now  it  turns,  so  that  the  body  lies  lengthwise  of  the 
egg,  the  beak  in  contact  with  the  inner  membrane  of  the  shell 
about  one-quarter  of  the  way  from  the  large  end  of  the  egg.  The 
air  cell  is  now  much  enlarged,  owing  to  evaporation  of  the  fluids, 
and  the  additional  space  so  formed  is  utilized  by  the  chick  at 
hatching.  Infrequent  turning  of  the  eggs,  or  weakness  of  the 
embryo,  will  not  permit  the  change  of  position  on  the  fourteenth 
day;  there  will  be  what  is  termed  a  " false  presentation,"  and,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  the  chick  will  not  be  able  to  get  out  of  the  shell. 

By  the  twentieth  day  the  embryo  will  have  grown  so  that  it 
occupies  all  of  the  egg  except  the  air  cell,  the  yolk  will  have  been 
nearly  all  absorbed,  and  what  remains  is  drawn  into  the  body 
at  the  umbilicus  (navel  opening),  the  body  walls  closing  over 
the  opening.  This  process  of  absorption  is  an  important  factor 
in  the  early  life  of  the  chick,  since  it  is  the  source  of  nourishment 
until  the  chick  can  digest  and  assimilate  feed  from  outside  sources. 

Process  of  Hatching. — The  process  of  hatching  is  one  of  the 
most  striking  phenomena  connected  with  the  development  of  the 
young  chick,  and  is  interesting  alike  to  the  experienced  and  in- 
experienced. The  process  is  approximately  as  follows : 

When  ready  to  leave  the  shell,  which  is  usually  on  the  twentieth 
or  twenty-first  day,  the  chick  tears  the  inner  shell  membrane  with 
its  beak,  stretches  its  neck,  and,  occupying  the  extra  air  space,  at 
once  begins  to  breathe  the  air  which  it  contained.  As  a  result  of 


REVIEW  311 

this  extra  oxygen,  the  pulmonary  circulation  becomes  active,  the 
embryonic  circulation  ceases,  and  the  allantois  shrivels  up,  since 
its  use  is  no  longer  needed.  The  chick  now  has  room  to  move  its 
head/and  it  begins  to  break  the  shell  by  dealing  blow  after  blow  with 
its  beak  upon  one  spot  on 
the  inside  until  the  shell 
is  punctured  (Fig.  150). 
This  performance  is  re- 
peated, in  a  new  place 
each  time,  until  the  shell  is 
broken  all  around  about 
one-third  of  the  distance 
from  the  large  end.  All 

the  Chick  nOW  has    tO    do  FIG.  150.-Hatching  time.     One  egg  completely 

to  get  Ollt  from  the  Shell  IS  Pipped  ready  for  the  final  effort  of  the  chick;  the 

±^f™.   «±V^,^±  r,«+^     f  other    chick  is  resting  after  the  effort.     (Photo  by 

tO  lOrCe  these  two  parts  Of  Hearson,  Ltd.) 

the  shell  apart  by  pressing 

its  feet  against  the  small  end  and  its  head  against  the  large  one, 
which  it  throws  off.  It  takes  the  chick  some  time  to  dry  off  and 
get  the  use  of  its  legs,  and  usually  from  one  to  three  hours  elapse 
after  hatching  before  it  becomes  very  active. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Why  need  the  fowl's  reproductive  system  be  so  complicated? 

2.  The  hen's  reproductive  system  is  composed  of  what  two  parts? 

3.  Where  is  the  ovary  located  and  what  is  its  work? 

4.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  ovary  and  yolk  sacs. 

5.  Describe  the  maturity  of  an  ovum  and  its  entrance  into  the  oviduct. 

6.  What  is  the  oviduct?     What  are  its  uses? 

7.  Where  is  the  egg  fertilized? 

8.  Describe  the  changes  in  the  egg  during  its  passage  through  the  oviduct. 

9.  Enumerate  the  parts  of  a  completed  egg,  and  give  the  use  of  each  part. 

10.  Give  the  approximate  composition  of  the  whole  egg,  with  and  without 

the  shell. 

11.  Mention  the  types  of  malformed  eggs,  and  give  the  cause  of  each. 

12.  Discuss  the  fertile  and  infertile  egg. 

13.  Describe  the  development  of  the  embryo  which  takes  place  before  the  egg 

is  laid. 

14.  Describe  the  first  day's  development  during  incubation. 

15.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  embryo  when  thirty-six  hours  old. 

16.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  embryo  when  seventy-two  hours  old. 

17.  Give  subsequent  development  from  third  day  to  hatching  time. 

18.  Describe  the  process  of  hatching. 

Reference. — Reproductive  Organs  of  the  Hen,  by  D.  F.  Laurie,  South 
Australia  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  72. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING. 

Two  distinct  methods  of  incubating  the  eggs  of  the  domestic 
fowl  are  in  use  on  different  types  of  poultry  plants, — one,  commonly 
called  the  natural  method,  in  which  the  hen  herself  generates  the 
heat  necessary  for  incubation;  the  other,  commonly  called  arti- 
ficial incubation,  in  which  heat  is  supplied  in  some  manner  other 
than  by  the  hen.  In  the  artificial  way  heat  is  generated  by  the 
combustion  of  some  fuel,  the  hen  as  a  mother  being  left  out  of 
consideration  entirely.  Each  of  these  methods  has  advantages  and 
disadvantages,  and  each  is  adapted  to  certain  types  of  poultry  hus- 
bandry. The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  are  here  given. 

Advantages  of  Natural  Incubation. — (1)  It  is  more  economical, 
where  a  small  number  of  eggs  are  to  be  hatched  and  where  first 
cost  only  is  considered.  The  installation  of  a  medium-sized  incu- 
bator costs  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  dollars,  whereas  the  same 
number  of  eggs  can  be  hatched  under  hens  with  but  little  initial 
expense.  (2)  Chicks  brooded  by  the  hen  appear  to  have  as  much 
or  more  stamina,  and  are  subject  to  fewer  diseases,  than  those 
artificially  bred ;  it  is  doubtful,  however,  if  there  is  as  much  differ- 
ence in  this  respect  as  is  generally  supposed.  (3)  A  great  many 
progressive  poultrymen,  hatching  relatively  large  numbers,  con- 
tinue to  use  the  hen  exclusively,  for  they  consider  that  the  progeny 
are  of  superior  quality. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  natural  incubation  are  numerous,  and 
all  are  well  grounded  and  self-evident.  (1)  It  is  not  always  possible 
to  have  a  supply  of  sitting  hens  on  hand.  If  a  large  hatch  is  desired 
early  in  the  spring,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  depend  with  any 
degree  of  certainty  upon  the  hen,  since  the  natural  period  of  broodi- 
ness  does  not  usually  begin  until  well  along  in  the  spring.  It 
would  have  been  impossible  to  develop  the  broiler  industry,  as  it 
has  been  developed,  by  the  natural  method,  for  there  are  few,  if 
any,  sitting  hens  on  the  average  plant  during  the  fall  and  winter. 
(2)  There  is  invariably  the  danger  and  liability  of  the  hens  leaving 
the  nest  at  any  time  they  see  fit.  They  may,  as  far  as  outward 
appearances  go,  be  exceptionally  good  sitters  when  selected,  and 
may  sit  on  the  eggs  for  a  time;  but  the  period  of  broodiness  may 
312 


DISADVANTAGES  OF  THE  ARTIFICIAL  METHOD        313 

cease,  and,  if  the  exact  temper  of  the  sitters  is  not  carefully  noted, 
great  loss  of  eggs  and  time  may  result  from  their  fickleness.  This 
is  even  more  true  of  the  light  nervous  breeds  than  it  is  of  the  heavier 
meat  producers  and  general-purpose  fowls.  The  hen  is  never  abso- 
lutely under  man's  control;  she  has  a  will  of  her  own;  hence,  the 
poultryman  at  best  cannot  be  certain  of  definite  results  until  after 
the  hatch.  (3)  If  the  hen  used  is  of  nervous  temperament  and  large 
size,  she  is  apt  to  crush  the  eggs  or  chicks  under  her  feet.  Some 
hens  have  a  greater  tendency  to  break  eggs  than  others;  this  is  due 
largely  to  their  clumsiness  in  the  nest,  and  is  especially  true  of  the 
large  meat  breeds,  which  have  such  a  mass  of  feathers  on  their 
shanks  that  they  are  clumsy  in  getting  about.  (4)  Even  under 
ideal  conditions  the  hen  can  hatch  only  a  limited  number  of  chicks 
at  each  sitting.  When  a  large  hatch  is  desired  there  must  be  a 
great  many  sitters,  and  it  may  be  practically  impossible  to  secure 
them;  moreover,  the  limited  results  obtained  do  not  compensate 
for  the  necessary  care  and  handling. 

Advantages  of  the  Artificial  Method. — Much  may  be  said  of 
the  merits  of  artificial  incubation.  It  may  be  briefly  summed  up 
in  the  statement  that,  with  good  eggs  from  good  stock  in  an  incu- 
bator properly  and  intelligently  managed,  equally  good  or  better 
results  can  be  realized  than  with  natural  incubation.  (1)  The 
chief  advantage  of  artificial  incubation  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  can 
be  absolutely  regulated  by  man.  Eggs  may  be  hatched  at  any 
season  of  the  year  if  it  is  possible  to  secure  fertile  eggs  for  that 
purpose, — whether  it  be  for  broilers,  in  the  fall  and  winter;  for 
early  pullets,  in  January  and  February;  or  for  future  layers,  in 
March  and  April.  (2)  By  an  intelligent  use  of  the  incubator,  the 
poultryman  can  so  regulate  the  temperature,  moisture,  and  venti- 
lation as  to  secure  those  uniform  conditions  during  the  hatch 
which  insure  uniform  results.  (3)  The  element  of  chance  is  prac- 
tically eliminated,  and,  with  care  and  attention,  approximately 
the  same  results  can  be  secured  in  continuous  hatches  and  during 
successive  years.  (4)  The  incubator  is  cheaper  in  the  long  run. 
Taking  a  period  of  five  years,  and  considering  the  initial  expense 
and  labor,  it  is  much  cheaper  to  hatch  a  given  number  of  eggs  in 
an  incubator  than  under  hens. 

Disadvantages  of  the  Artificial  Method. — The  disadvantages, 
if  any,  of  this  method  are  largely  due  to  brooding.  (1)  It  is,  how- 
ever, doubtful  whether  the  percentage  of  fertile  eggs  hatched  in 
the  incubator  will  year  after  year  run  quite  as  high  as  when  under 


314  NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

the  hen.  This  will  depend  largely  upon  the  intelligence  and  experi- 
ence of  the  man  caring  for  the  hatch.  (2)  Artificially  brooded 
chicks  need  more  attention  than  those  brooded  by  the  hen.  The 
hen  as  a  mother  is  left  out  of  consideration,  and  the  poultryman 
must  use  his  judgment  in  supplying  conditions  which  will  be  the 
best  adapted  to  the  growth  and  development  of  the  chicks.  (3) 
All  things  considered,  artificially  brooded  chicks  are  more  liable 
to  disease;  or,  it  might  better  be  said  that,  owing  to  the  large 
number  handled,  they  do  not  get  the  individual  attention  which 
they  do  in  natural  brooding,  hence  the  chick  with  low  vitality 
succumbs  to  infection  much  more  readily.  (4)  The  percentage 
of  loss  is  usually  greater;  but,  with  more  accurate  knowledge  of 
brooding  requirements  and  good  care,  this  loss  while  brooding 
should  be  reduced  greatly. 

Summary. — If  one  wants  early  chicks  in  considerable  quantity 
and  has  the  time  for  their  proper  handling  and  brooding,  he  should 
get  an  incubator.  On  the  other  hand,  where  only  a  few  chicks  are 
wanted,  or  the  poultryman  has  only  limited  time  to  give  them,  the 
old  hen  is  the  best. 

Artificial  methods  rarely  pay  if  one  has  less  than  fifty  hens, 
except  in  those  cases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  hatch  the  whole 
yield  of  eggs  for  breeding  or  broiler  purposes. 

On  an  egg  farm  for  laying  breeds  exclusively,  an  incubator  is 
a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment, — much  more  so  than  where 
general  utility  breeds  are  raised. 

Broodiness. — Natural  incubation  is  dependent  upon  a  normal 
instinct  which  fowls  possess  in  greater  or  less  degree,  and  which 
is  called  "broodiness."  It  is  an  entirely  natural  phenomenon, 
dependent  upon  the  physical  instinct  of  all  animals  to  reproduce 
their  kind,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  this  instinct  gradu- 
ally diminishes,  where  the  tendency  is  continually  to  breed  for 
heavy  egg  production.  The  natural  period  of  broodiness  follows 
the  laying  of  a  certain  number  of  eggs;  this  number  depends  almost 
wholly  upon  the  hen,  and  varies  greatly.  Sometimes  hens  that 
have  been  persistent  layers  will  become  broody  immediately  after 
laying  from  six  to  ten  eggs;  others  will  lay  from  two  to  four  dozen. 
The  egg  breeds  rarely  ever  develop  this  characteristic  to  any 
marked  degree.  It  is  called  a  breed  characteristic,  and  is  especially 
marked  in  the  heavy  breeds,  less  so  in  the  lighter  ones. 

The  natural  period  of  broodiness  is  in  the  spring,  after  the 
birds  have  laid  their  first  clutch  of  eggs.  In  northern  climates 


WHERE  TO  SET  THE  HEN  315 

this  is  usually  in  April.  Several  signs  will  enable  one  to  pick  out 
the  broody  hen.  The  first  thing  noted  is  her  persistent  sitting 
upon  the  nest  after  laying.  The  non-broody  hen  will  leave  imme- 
diately after  laying  and  is  easily  disturbed  when  she  is  laying, 
while  the  reverse  is  true  of  the  broody  hen.  Other  distinctive  signs 
are  the  looseness  of  the  feathers  on  the  breast,  and  the  viciousness 
with  which  the  sitting  hen  will  attack  the  poultryman  when  he 
attempts  to  remove  her  from  the  nest  or  to  search  for  eggs.  There 
is  also  a  tendency  to  ruffle  up  the  feathers,  and  when  on  the  nest 
to  sit  close  with  wings  outspread.  Another  characteristic  is  the 
increased  body  heat,  which  can  be  felt  by  placing  the  hand  under 
the  breast.  This  is  a  natural  phenomenon  brought  about  by  an 
increased  flow  of  blood  into  that  part  during  this  period.  The  best 
time  to  pick  out  a  broody  hen  is  in  the  late  afternoon,  since  birds 
rarely  lay  their  eggs  later  than  two  or  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, and  after  this  time  all  hens  on  the  nest  show  more  or  less 
broodiness. 

When  to  Set  the  Hen. — When  hens  are  used  for  incubation, 
the  time  at  which  they  can  be  most  safely  depended  upon  is  during 
the  natural  hatching  season  in  the  spring.  Any  birds  with  a  well- 
developed  broody  tendency,  and  of  a  breed  which  can  be  depended 
upon,  can  be  safely  used  for  hatching.  At  this  time  the  percentage 
of  loss  due  to  fickleness  and  other  causes  will  be  reduced  to  the 
minimum. 

Where  to  Set  the  Hen. — There  are  two  methods  of  arranging 
nests  for  natural  hatching,  and  a  choice  will  depend  almost  wholly 
upon  the  breeds  to  be  used  and  the  number  of  eggs  to  be  hatched. 
One  can  use  either  a  large,  specially  constructed  house  for  sitting 
or  a  small  coop  of  suitable  type.  The  large  sitting  houses  are 
adapted  to  natural  hatching  when  carried  on  extensively.  Usually 
these  are  large  rooms  in  houses  of  simple  construction.  Have  them 
water-tight  j*nd  free  from  wind,  but  well  ventilated.  One  of  the 
best  types  is  the  shed-roof  structure,  with  the  entire  front  closed 
only  with  wire.  The  inside  of  the  house  is  equipped  with  tier 
upon  tier  of  large,  roomy  nests  for  the  hens.  Hens  are  allowed, 
at  regular  intervals,  to  get  down  on  'the  ground  to  scratch  and  eat. 
This  method  reduces  labor  to  a  minimum,  and  enables  one  man 
to  take  care  of  a  great  many  sitting  hens. 

The  second  method,  or  the  use  of  special  shelters,  is  merely 
the  placing  of  such  coops  in  a  secluded  place;  preferably  in  the 
lee  of  a  windbreak,  in  any  place  protected  by  buildings,  or  on  the 


316  NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

south  side  of  a  stone  wall  if  available.  High  ground  should  be 
selected,  so  that  during  long  periods  of  wet  weather  the  water 
will  not  collect  in  or  about  the  shelters.  If  possible  they  should 
be  placed  near  the  residence,  so  that  they  can  be  carefully  watched. 
Materials  used  for  such  Shelters. — As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  great 
variety  of  materials  are  used  in  the  construction  of  individual 
coops.  Small  A-shaped  (Fig.  151)  or  shed-roof  coops  represent 
the  best  types,  since  they  are  easy  to  construct  and  answer  all 
the  purposes.  Barrels  placed  on  the  side  may  be  used,  and  tight 
boxes  or  berry  crates  are  often  satisfactory  if  a  piece  of  water- 
proof paper  is  placed  over  the  top.  The  protection  necessary 


Fio.  151. — Two  common  types  of  sitting  coops. 

depends  upon  the  season  of  the  year  when  the  hatch  is  to  take  place. 
Protect  the  nest  both  from  rain  water  and  soil  moisture,  and  make 
it  so  that  it  can  be  closed  at  night. 

The  following  points  should  be  considered  in  constructing  a 
special  sitting  house  of  the  large  type:  (1)  It  should  be  proof 
against  rats  and  skunks, — that  is,  made  so  that  the  front  of  the 
coop  can  be  covered  at  night  with  small-mesh  wire  to  keep  animals 
from  entering.  (2)  It  should  be  free  from  large  cracks  or  crevices 
and  have  a  smooth  inside  finish,  because  of  damage  from  mites. 
(3)  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  a  false  bottom  in  each  nest. 

The  small  coops  can  be  used  with  or  without  such  bottom, 
but  it  is  most  useful  when  the  chicks  are  very  young,  or  early  in 
the  spring  when  the  ground  is  wet.  Moreover,  by  having  the 
bottom  movable  it  is  much  easier  to  cleanse  the  inside.  The  coop 
should  be  built  with  the  idea  of  using  it  for  a  brooding  coop  after 
the  hatch,  and  it  should  be  so  planned  as  to  confine  the  hen  yet 
give  the  chicks  freedom.  This  can  be  done  by  putting  slats  over 
the  front  of  the  coop,  sufficiently  far  apart  to  allow  passage  of  the 


SELECTING  THE  HEN  317 

chicks  and  yet  confine  the  hen.  Such  coops  should  be  constructed 
of  light  material  so  that  they  can  be  easily  carried  from  place  to 
place,  and  should  be  made  at  very  low  cost. 

Rules  for  Making  a  Good  Nest. — The  main  requisite  of  a  good 
nest  is  a  depression  in  the  centre,  so  that  there  can  be  no  danger 
of  the  eggs  being  shoved  out  and  rolled  into  the  corners.  This  is 
important,  for  many  eggs  may  easily  be  lost  in  this  way.  Where 
the  nest  is  built  directly  upon  the  ground,  the  best  plan  is  to  hollow 
or  scoop  out  the  centre,  banking  up  the  loose  dirt  around  the  edges, 
and  covering  the  floor  with  nesting  material.  Where,  however, 
the  nest  is  built  on  a  wooden  or  portable  floor,  it  is  well  to  put  in 
two  or  three  inches  of  dirt,  scooping  this  out  in  the  same  way, 
then  place  the  nesting  material  upon  it.  When  a  barrel  is  used  or 
any  box  with  a  large  flat  bottom,  the  nest  should  be  partially 
formed  from  other  matter  before  putting  in  the  nesting  material. 
In  the  case  of  the  barrel,  a  brick  at  front  and  back  will  help  to 
shape  the  nest,  and  confine  it  to  one  place.  The  hollow  in  the 
nest  should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  all  the  eggs  to  be 
hatched;  a  good  rule  is  to  make  it  at  least  a  foot  in  diameter  at 
the  top  and  sloping  toward  the  bottom,  where  it  should  be  from 
two  to  three  inches  in  depth.  Soil  in  the  bottom  will  help  to  form 
and  preserve  the  shape  of  the  nest,  and  it  maintains  a  certain 
degree  of  atmospheric  moisture,  which  is  desirable. 

Nesting  Material. — Many  materials  are  excellent  for  finishing 
a  nest;  the  best,  however,  is  straw  or  hay,  cut  in  about  six-inch 
lengths.  If  extremely  long  and  coarse  uncut  straw  is  used,  it  will 
be  hard  to  shape  the  nest,  and  the  eggs  will  very  likely  be  caught 
in  it  or  roll  under  the  large  wisps  so  that  it  will  be  impossible  for 
the  hen  properly  to  care  for  them.  Leaves  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage;  but,  whatever  the  material,  there  must  be  no  grain, 
as  the  birds  are  apt  to  destroy  the  nest  in  picking  at  the  grain. 
Shavings  are  suitable  for  laying  nests,  but  objectionable  for  hatch- 
ing nests,  because  they  are  loose,  the  eggs  often  become  buried  in 
them,  and  they  do  not  retain  as  high  a  degree  of  heat  as  is  needed. 

Selecting  the  Hen. — In  selecting  a  hen  for  hatching  purposes 
the  following  considerations  should  be  borne  in  mind,  for  reasons 
stated:  (1)  Her  size  is  important,  that  is,  her  ability  to  cover  the 
desired  number  of  eggs  completely.  The  small  hen  can  cover  only 
a  few,  and  there  is  danger,  that  those  near  the  edge  will  not  be 
kept  warm  enough.  The  larger  the  hen  the  better,  other  things 
being  equal.  (2)  Be  sure  that  the  hen  selected  has  the  broody 


318  NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

inclination  well  developed.  This  can  be  ascertained  by  watching 
her  before  making  the  selection.  (See  p.  314).  (3)  The  temper 
of  the  bird  should  be  observed.  While  some  viciousness  is  desirable, 
since  it  is  an  indication  of  broodiness  and  reveals  the  maternal 
instinct  to  brood  and  protect,  yet  hens  with  this  characteristic 
highly  developed  do  not  all  make  good  sitters,  for  in  their  attempts 
to  fight  they  are  apt  to  break  or  crack  the  eggs.  Those  of  a  nervous, 
flighty  disposition  should  not  be  selected.  (4)  The  next  considera- 
tion should  be  that  of  health  and  general  condition.  No  bird 
should  be  selected  that  does  not  show  plenty  of  fat,  or  which  does 
not  indicate  by  a  bright  red  comb  and  bright  eyes  that  she  is  in 
good  vigor  Any  hen  with  a  tendency  to  disease,  especially  diar- 
rhoea, should  be  discarded.  The  brooding  period  is  at  best  a 
heavy  strain  on  the  bird,  and  she  needs  a  vigorous  constitution  at 
the  beginning  in  order  to  perform  her  function.  It  is  poor  policy 
to  use  a  hen  more  than  once  the  same  season.  (5)  The  age  of  the 
bird  is  also  to  be  considered.  Pullets  do  not  make  as  good  sitters 
as  yearlings  or  two-year-old  hens,  and  when  possible  the  latter 
should  be  used.  (6)  Where  selection  can  be  made  from  one  or 
more  breeds,  it  is  wise  to  make  the  first  choice  from  a  strain  known 
to  possess  the  broody  instinct  in  a  high  degree.  For  example,  it 
is  known  that  in  the  general-purpose  breeds  this  instinct  is  highly 
developed,  and  of  all  this  group  the  Rhode  Island  Reds  are  con- 
ceded to  exhibit  it  in  the  most  extreme  degree. 

Process  of  Setting  the  Hen. — It  is  best  to  take  the  bird  from 
the  laying  nest  at  night,  as  it  can  then  be  done  more  conveniently 
and  there  is  less  danger  of  frightening  her.  At  night  the  hen  takes 
more  naturally  to  new  surroundings.  Having  selected  the  bird, 
she  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  a  good  lice  powder,  working 
it  well  into  the  plumage,  especially  under  the  wings,  breast,  and 
body.  Previous  to  setting  the  hen,  the  nest  should  be  shaped  and 
the  eggs  placed  in  it.  It  is  well  to  set  her  on  false  or  china  eggs 
for  a  day  or  two  in  order  to  test  her  and  see  how  she  takes  to  new 
conditions;  this  often  prevents  broken  eggs  and  ruined  nests.  By 
this  method,  too,  the  hen  herself  will,  in  great  measure,  shape  the 
nest,  and  one  need  not  be  so  careful  in  making  the  nest  previous 
to  setting  her.  She  should  be  placed  on  the  nest  very  cautiously, 
letting  her  feel  the  eggs  underneath  bef ore  ^  releasing  her.  For  a 
few  days  it  is  best  to  confine  her  in  the  nest,  so  that  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  her  forsaking  it. 

Number  of  Eggs. — The  number  of  eggs  to  be  placed  under  a 


CARE  OF  THE  SITTING  HEN  319 

hen  varies  according  to  the  size  of  the  hen,  size  of  the  eggs,  and 
the  season  of  the  year.  Birds  of  medium  size  will  cover  from  nine 
to  twelve  eggs  with  very  little  difficulty,  while  larger  birds  will 
cover  twelve  to  eighteen.  It  is  safest  to  put  in  the  nest  one  or  two 
less  than  the  hen  can  conveniently  cover  rather  than  too  many.  If 
there  are  too  many  eggs,  some  are  liable  to^be  broken  or  injured, 
for  their  position  in  the  nest  will  be  changed  continually,  and  all 
will  receive  a  lessened  degree  of  heat.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
the  average  hen  will  cover  fifteen  eggs  without  inconvenience. 
With  larger  eggs,  such  as  duck  eggs,  not  so  many  can  be  placed  in 
the  same  nest,  eight  to  ten  duck  eggs  under  one  hen  being  about 
the  right  number,  while  five  goose  eggs  and  six  turkey  eggs  can 
be  covered  by  a  single  hen.  During  warm  weather  more  eggs  can 
be  placed  in  a  nest  than  during  cold  weather,  so  that  in  the  winter 
it  is  well  to  reduce  the  above  numbers  by  one  or  two  to  insure  the 
most  abundant  hatch. 

Care  of  the  Sitting  Hen. — In  the  care  of  the  sitting  hen  system 
is  worth  more  than  all  other  points  combined;  for,  in  the  absence 
of  this,  the  birds  may  become  mixed,  the  eggs  disarranged,  the 
hatching  time  of  the  different  nests  forgotten  or  confounded,  and 
certain  loss  will  be  the  result.  In  the  management  of  sitting  hens, 
it  is  a  safe  rule  to  keep  them  all  confined  except  when  they  are  let 
out  for  feed  and  water.  This  will  obviate  any  danger  of  their 
becoming  mixed.  They  should  be  provided  with  feed  and  water 
at  a  regular  time  each  day,  for  this  teaches  them  to  expect  it  at 
such  time,  and  they  will  immediately  come  off  the  nest  to  eat  and 
soon  return;  therefore  less  time  is  consumed  in  feeding  them  satis- 
factorily. The  nests  should  be  numbered  in  rotation.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  set  hens  on  the  same  day  each  week,  as  this  will  bring  all 
the  testing  and  hatching  on  certain  days,  thereby  precluding  the 
embarrassment  of  not  knowing  when  this  work  ought  to  be  done. 
Since  natural  incubation  is  essentially  a  matter  of  detail,  most 
careful  and  thoughtful  attention  should  be  given  to  it. 

Feed  for  the  Sitting  Hen. — The  main  feed  of  the  hen  should 
be  whole  or  cracked  grain,  which  may  be  fed  either  on  the  floor 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  nest  or,  better,  in  self-feeding  hoppers.  A 
constant  supply  should  be  kept  before  them,  corn  being  an  im- 
portant constituent  of  the  ration.  No  wet  feed,  such  as  wet  mashes, 
should  be  given,  for  it  tends  to  produce  looseness  of  the  bowels, 
which  is  detrimental. 

Fresh  water  should  be  provided  in  a  clean  vessel.     During 


320  NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

exceptionally  hot  weather  in  the  summer  or  late  spring,  it  is  well 
to  leave  an  open  pan  or  low  bucket  on  the  ground,  so  that,  when 
the  birds  desire,  they  can  immerse  their  plumage  in  the  water. 

Cleanliness  in  the  sitting  coop  or  nest  is  of  paramount  import- 
ance, since  it  means  the  prevention  of  vermin,  improved  health 
of  the  hen,  and  more  ideal  conditions  for  the  chicks.  Three  points 
should  be  here  considered :  (1)  The  droppings  should  be  frequently 
removed,  as  well  as  any  cracked  shells  or  extremely  dirty  litter. 
This  can  best  be  done  when  the  birds  are  off  the  nest  to  eat.  (2) 
An  abundance  of  dust  should  be  provided  in  a  box  within  easy 
access  of  the  nest,  so  that  the  sitting  hens  can  dust  themselves, 
which  is  just  as  essential  to  them  as  a  bath  is  to  human  beings, 
and  it  also  helps  to  keep  away  body  lice  and  mites.  (3)  The  neces- 
sity of  dusting  the  hen  with  a  good  insect  powder  once  or  twice 
during  the  incubation  period.  The  most  convenient  times  are  on 
the  seventh  and  fourteenth  days  when  the  eggs  are  tested. 

Testing  the  Eggs. — In  order  to  determine  the  fertility  of  the 
eggs  and  the  development  of  the  embryo,  which  is  the  gauge  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  hatch,  it  is  advisable  to  candle  eggs  at  least 
once,  and  probably  twice,  during  the  hatch.  This  process  is 
described  in  the  following  chapter  (p.  343). 

Take  out  all  which  will  not  hatch,  thus  enabling  the  hen  to 
better  cover  the  remaining  eggs.  Or,  when  fertility  is  rather  low 
and  two  or  more  hens  are  sitting,  take  the  fertile  eggs  from  one 
hen  and  put  them  under  others.  If  the  eggs  are  tested  twice  dur- 
ing the  hatch,  the  most  convenient  times  will  be  on  the  seventh 
and  fourteenth  days.  In  natural  incubation  it  may  be  best  to 
test  but  once,  since  testing  has  a  tendency  to  disturb  the  hen 
more  than  some  consider  advisable. 

Importance  of  Keeping  Sitting  Records. — In  natural  incuba- 
tion, records  should  be  kept  of  each  sitting  hen,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain just  how  the  hatches  are  running  and  to  perfect  the  method. 
Such  records  should  state  the  number  of  the  nest,  the  breed  of  the 
hen,  the  date  when  set,  the  variety  or  kind  of  eggs,  the  day  of  first 
test,  and  the  number  of  fertile,  infertile,  and  dead  germs,  also  the 
date  of  second  test,  giving  the  number  of  fertile  and  dead  germs. 
The  percentage  of  hatch,  or  the  number  of  live  chicks  taken  from 
the  nest,  should  also  be  stated.  This  record  may  be  kept  on  cards 
in  a  rack  above  the  nest  or  in  a  book.  Such  a  record  will  show  the 
keeper  when  his  hens  are  due  to  hatch,  when  fertility  is  running 
low,  and  perhaps  enable  him  to  make  a  pedigree  hatch. 


PERIOD  OF  INCUBATION 


321 


Period  of  Incubation. — The  hen's 
egg  requires  approximately  twenty- 
one  days  for  incubation.  This  pe- 
riod, however,  varies  considerably  in 
eggs  from  different  breeds;  for  in- 
stance, the  white-shelled  eggs  of  the 
Leghorns,  under  uniform  conditions, 
will  pip  and  a  great  many  hatch  on 
the  twentieth  day,  while  under 
the  same  circumstances  the  Brahma 
eggs  will  take  at  least  twenty-two 
days.  This  is  probably  due  to  quick- 
er development  of  the  germ  of  the 
Leghorns  and  to  the  fact  that  the 
eggshell  is  thinner.  The  periods  of 
incubation  required  for  other  birds 
are:  Ducks,  twenty-eight  days; 
swans,  from  thirty-two  to  thirty- 
five,  usually  thirty-five  days ;  geese, 
thirty  to  thirty-five  days;  turkeys, 
peafowls,  and  guineas,  twenty-eight 
days.  These  are  the  average  natu- 
ral incubation  periods;  in  artificial 
incubation  the  time  varies  some- 
what. They  may  also  be  affected 
by  the  degree  of  heat  which  the 
broody  hen  develops.  The  closer 
she  sits  and  the  greater  heat  she 
generates,  the  shorter  will  be  the 
incubation  period.  Chicks  which 
hatch  much  in  advance  of  the  nor- 
mal period  or  exceedingly  late  are 
of  no  value,  for  this  indicates  low 
vitality.  The  best  chicks  are  those 
which  are  hatched  at  a  uniform  time, 
the  great  majority  breaking  the  shell 
on  or  about  the  times  mentioned. 
A  severe  chilling  of  the  eggs  during 
incubation  will  of  ten  kill  the  embryo, 
or  at  least  retard  the  hatch  from 
twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours. 
21 


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Vsx|x'x' 


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16 


FlG  152._M»niier  of  toe  punching 
for  baby  chicks,  showing  sixteen  com- 

binations,  making  it  possible  to  identify 

sixteen  different 


322  NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

Care  at  Hatching  Time. — As  hatching  time  approaches  the 
hen  sits  very  close  to  the  nest,  and  often  refuses  to  come  off  to 
eat.  This  is  natural,  as  a  high  temperature  is  now  necessary.  She 
should  be  kept  in  the  nest,  for  many  hens  at  this  time  become 
nervous,  and  try  to  leave  it  after  a  few  chicks  are  hatched.  The 
nest  should  be  so  prepared  that  the  chicks,  as  they  hatch,  cannot 
get  away  from  the  hen  and  fall  out  of  it.  It  is  well  to  feel  under 
the  hen  occasionally,  and  remove  any  shells  or  weak  and  crushed 
chicks,  but  normal  chicks  should  not  be  taken  away  from  the  hen 
until  they  are  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  old,  or  until  the  hen 
of  her  own  will  takes  the' flock  out  in  search  of  feed. 

Causes  of  a  Poor  Hatch. — The  causes  of  a  poor  hatch  with  the 
natural  method  when  known  can  easily  be  guarded  against.  They 
are:  (1)  Poor  sitters;  (2)  poor  eggs;  (3)  the  presence  of  vermin; 
(4)  improper  management.  These  are  all  equally  important,  and 
a  successful  hatch  depends  upon  attention  to  all,  from  the  fact 
that  neglect  of  any  one  means  almost  certain  failure. 

Marking  Chicks. — It  is  often  desirable  to  keep  a  record  of  the 
new  chicks;  it  may  be  merely  for  the  time  of  hatching  or  more 
detailed  information  as  to  parent  stock.  To  mark  the  chicks  per- 
manently and  without  injury,  the  poultryman  uses  one  of  two 
methods,  toe  punching  and  leg  banding.  The  system  of  toe  punch- 
ing allows  of  sixteen  different  numbers.  These  are  shown  in  figure 
152.  If  the  marks  are  carefully  made,  this  method  will  answer 
very  well.  It  is  more  quickly  done  than  leg  banding  and  does  not 


i 


FIG.   153. — A  good,  yet  simple,  leg  band  for  chicks. 

necessitate  much  clerical  work;  but,  if  not  properly  done,  toe  mark- 
ings are  apt  to  be  grown  over  or  the  web  to  be  torn.  With  leg  bands 
(Fig.  153)  accurate  and  full  records  must  be  kept,  which  means 
considerable  expense  in  time  and  material;  but,  where  superiority 
through  breeding  is  desired,  this  money  and  time  are  well  spent. 

NATURAL   BROODING. 

In  the  rearing  of  chicks  with  the  hen,  one  of  the  first  essentials 
is  a  suitable  brooder  coop,  which  should  be  designed  as  follows: 
It  should  be  light  and  portable.  It  must  allow  the  chicks  to  have 


CARE  OF  THE  YOUNG  CHICKS  323 

free  range,  if  desired,  but  should  confine  the  hen.  It  should  pro- 
vide ample  shelter  for  both  hen  and  chicks  during  wet  weather. 
In  the  construction  of  such  coops,  1x2  inch  strips  and  plaster 
laths  make  an  excellent  yard  for  the  hen  and  chicks  to  exercise  in, 
and  shelter  and  sleeping  coop  can  be  built  at  one  end.  The  brooder 
coop  should  be  located  in  a  spot  sheltered  from  the  wind,  where 
there  is  plenty  of  green  grass  and  some  protection  from  enemies. 
The  floor  should  be  elevated,  and  covered  to  quite  a  depth  with 
sand,  to  keep  it  dry  and  to  facilitate  cleaning.  The  hen  and  chicks 
should  be  transferred  to  the  brooder  coop  about  sixty  hours  after 
the  hatch,  or  when  the  chicks  have  dried  off  and  are  ready  to  leave 
the  nest  in  search  of  feed.  In  making  the  transfer  it  is  best  to 
carry  the  hen  under  the  arm  and  the  chicks  in  a  basket  or  other 
handy  receptacle,  the  chicks  being  put  in  the  coop  first,  and  the 
hen  gently  placed  in  after  them.  By  this  procedure  there  is  less 
danger  of  the  hen  trampling  on  her  chicks. 

Care  of  the  Young  Chicks. — The  chicks  should  be  kept  close 
to  the  hen  for  a  few  days,  until  they  get  accustomed  to  the  coop 
and  know  where  to  run  for  protection.  It  should  also  be  made 
certain  that  they  are  securely  fastened  in  the  coop  with  the  hen 
at  night,  also  that  they  are  under  shelter  in  the  coop  in  spells  of 
rainy  weather  during  the  first  few  weeks  after  hatching. 

Feeding  the  Young  Chicks. — It  is  important  that  the  chicks  be 
given  feed  which  is  easily  digested.  The  belief  that  feed  should 
be  withheld  from  chicks  naturally  hatched,  with  the  idea  that  the 
newly  absorbed  yolk  will  nourish  them  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time,  is  a  mistaken  one.  In  artificial  brooding  this  question 
of  feeding  must  be  considered,  but  it  is  of  no  practical  importance 
in  natural  brooding,  because  the  hen  will  see  to  the  feeding.  As 
soon  as  they  have  been  put  in  the  brooder  coop,  give  the  hen  a 
good  feed  of  whole  corn  and  place  water  where  she  and  the  chicks 
can  drink  it,  then  throw  a  little  rolled  oats  on  the  sand.  This  is 
probably  the  best  feed  for  young  chicks,  because,  owing  to  its 
light  color,  it  attracts  their  attention  and  they  can  see  to  eat  it. 
Bread  crumbs  soaked  in  milk  make  an  excellent  first  feed  for 
naturally  hatched  chicks,  as  do  hard-boiled  eggs,  to  which  use 
infertile  eggs  can  be  put.  The  general  practice,  however,  and  it 
is  a  good  one,  is  to  start  the  chicks  on  fine  cracked  corn  or  wheat. 
For  the  first  few  days  only  a  limited  amount  of  the  grain  should 
be  given,  but  after  they  have  learned  to  eat  they  should  be  fed 
two  or  three  times  a  day  with  good  feed  which  they  can  clean  up 


324 


NATURAL  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 


in  a  short  time.  Where  skim-milk  is  available,  it  is  well  to  give 
the  chicks  all  of  it  they  wish  to  drink.  Unless  they  have  access 
to  green  grass  (Fig.  154)  in  the  runs,  a  little  chopped  lettuce  or 
other  green  feed  should  be  furnished.  In  the  absence  of  any  fine 
sand  or  gravel  on  the  floor  of  the  coop,  chick  grit  should  be  supplied. 
After  the  first  few  weeks  the  ration  can  be  gradually  simplified 
and  made  less  expensive.  Cracked  corn  or  wheat  should  serve  as 
its  basis,  in  addition  to  which  the  chicks  should  be  given  animal 
and  green  feed,  also  grit.  The  feeding  of  young  stock  naturally 
hatched  is  a  much  more  simple  proposition  than  the  feeding  of 
artificially  hatched  chicks  in  the  brooder;  for,  in  the  first  case,  the 
hen  sees  to  their  welfare  to  a  great  extent.  (For  principles  and 

methods  of  chick  feeding  see 
Chapter  XXL) 

Chick  Ration. — A  good  ra- 
tion for  the  first  week  for  chicks 
brooded  by  the  hen  contains 
equal  parts  of  cracked  corn, 
crushed  wheat,  and  oatmeal. 

Put  the  feed  where  the  hen 
cannot  reach  it,  she  being  given 
three  times  daily  a  grain  ration 
of  equal  parts  of  corn  and 
wheat.  During  the  second  and 
succeeding  weeks  gradually 
eliminate  the  oatmeal,  and  as 
the  chicks  grow  larger  substi- 
tute whole  wheat  for  the  crushed.  After  the  first  week  begin  to 
give  them  dry  mash  similar  to  that  used  in  artificial  brooding. 

Parasites. — One  great  evil  to  which  naturally  hatched  chicks 
are  prone  is  the  presence  of  lice,  notably  head  lice,  which  if  in 
great  numbers  sap  the  vitality,  weaken  the  constitution,  and  stunt 
the  growth.  The  best  means  of  ridding  chicks  of  lice  is  to  grease 
the  head  with  lard  or  carbolized  vaseline;  this  will  not  only  drive 
the  lice  away,  but  tend  to  keep  others  from  coming.  Unless  the 
parent  is  kept  well  dusted,  chicks  are  also  infested  at  an  early  age 
by  body  lice,  and,  for  this  reason,  it  is  well  to  dust  the  hen  at 
regular  intervals  of  about  two  weeks  until  the  chicks  are  weaned. 
Weaning  and  Separation  of  Sexes. — As  soon  as  the  chicks  are 
old  enough  to  look  out  for  themselves,  the  hen  should  be  removed, 
for  two  reasons:  Because  if  put  back  in  the  pen  she  will  soon  begin 


FIG.  154. — An  average-sized  flock  by  nat- 
ural incubation.  (Photo  by  Kellerstrass  Farm, 
Kansas  City.) 


REVIEW  325 

to  lay,  and  because  the  chicks  grow  faster  after  the  hen  is  removed. 
The  age  at  which  the  hen  should  be  allowed  to  wean  her  chicks 
depends  upon  the  weather  and  season, — usually  from  four  to  six 
weeks  is  the  average. 

At  about  ten  weeks,  or  as  soon  as  sex  can  be  distinguished,  the 
sexes  should  be  separated  if  maximum  growth  is  to  be  realized. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  terms  are  used  to  define  the  two  methods  of  incubation? 

2.  Enumerate  disadvantages  of  natural  incubation. 

3.  Discuss  artificial  incubation. 

4.  Mention  three  points  which  will  aid  one  in  determining  which  system  to 

follow. 

5.  Describe  the  broody  hen. 

6.  When  is  the  best  time  to  set  the  hen? 

7.  Name  and  describe  two  methods  of  setting  hens  in  large  numbers. 

8.  Give  the  desirable  features  in  individual  sitting  coops. 

9.  How  would  you  make  a  good  nest,  and  what  material  could  be  used? 

10.  Enumerate  five  points  which  should  be  considered  when  selecting  the 

sitting  hen. 

11.  Describe  the  procedure  in  setting  the  hen. 

12.  How  many  eggs  under  one  hen? 

13.  Describe  method  of  caring  for  and  feeding  the  sitting  hen. 

14.  Give  three  cautions  to  insure  cleanliness  in  and  around  the  nest. 

15.  Is  it  important  to  test  the  eggs?     Why? 

16.  What  factors  should  be  recorded  in  sitting  records? 

17.  Name  the  periods  of  incubation  for  different  species  of  birds. 

18.  What  special  attention  is  required  at  hatching  time? 

19.  Give  four  causes  of  poor  hatches. 

20.  Describe  two  methods  of  marking  newly  hatched  chicks;  why  used? 

21.  Describe  a  good  brooding  coop  for  hen  and  chicks. 

22.  Outline  the  care  of  the  young  chicks. 

23.  Outline  a  complete  system  of  feeding  baby  chicks  in  natural  brooding. 

24.  What  is  the  effect  of  body  parasites  upon  the  growing  chicks?     How 

prevented? 

25.  What  are  the  advantages  of  early  weaning? 


CHAPTER  XX. 
ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION. 

ARTIFICIAL  incubation  and  brooding  means  the  hatching  and 
rearing  of  chicks  by  use  of  incubators  and  brooders.  The  hen's 
heat  and  maternal  instinct  are  entirely  disregarded. 

Historical. — Artificial  incubation  has  been  successfully  prac- 
tised since  prehistoric  times.  The  earliest  reliable  records  are 
found  in  accounts  of  Egyptian  egg  ovens:  The  eggs  were  placed 
in  large  baskets  made  of  reeds,  and  surrounded  by  fermenting 
manure  which  supplied  the  heat.  The  method  was  very  crude, 
yet  productive  of  excellent  results.  This  artificial  hatching  was 
carried  on  by  different  families,  generation  after  generation,  and 
they  thus  became  very  expert  in  manipulating  the  equipment. 

This  simple  method  was  superseded  by  the  use  of  ovens,  re- 
mains of  which  have  recently  been  found  in  Egypt,  where  the  prac- 
tice of  hatching  eggs  in  large  ovens  has  lately  been  revived.  These 
ovens  have  capacities  ranging  from  one  thousand  to  three  hundred 
thousand  eggs  in  a  season.  As  a  rule,  they  are  centrally  located 
in  some  large  village  in  an  agricultural  district.  The  eggs  are 
purchased  by  the  manager  of  the  oven,  and  the  chicks  sold  when 
hatched.  Such  eggs  can  usually  be  purchased  for  $2.50  to 
$3.00  per  thousand,  and  the  resulting  chicks  sold  for  $1.00  per 
hundred.  These  large  hatching  plants  are  marvels  of  simplicity. 
They  consist  of  a  large,  low  building  constructed  of  clay,  through 
the  centre  of  which  runs  a  long  alley,  and  opening  out  of  this  are 
small,  circular  compartments  with  two  floors,  the  second  being 
about  four  feet  above  the  first.  The  eggs  are  placed  on  straw,  the 
heat  being  generated  by  burning  fuel  set  on  an  elevated  ledge 
around  the  sides  of  each  room,  the  amount  of  fuel  used  regulating 
the  heat.  There  is  an  aperture  in  each  room  which  carries  off  the 
smoke  and  surplus  heat.  In  the  centre  of  each  compartment  is 
an  opening  where  the  operator  stands  when  turning  and  handling 
the  eggs.  As  they  hatch  the  chicks  are  removed  to  the  central 
alley,  which  is  somewhat  cooler,  and  kept  there  until  sold. 

Early  historical  records  show  that  artificial  incubation  was 
carried  on  in  China  in  ovens  similar  to  the  above.  The  appliances 
were  very  crude,  and  success  depended  almost  entirely  upon  the 
326 


INCUBATOR   HOUSES  AND  CELLARS  327 

judgment,  skill,  and  close  attention  of  the  operator.  The  next 
development  of  the  artificial  method  was  in  France  during  the 
fifteenth  century,  but  little  actual  progress  was  made.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  water  was  first  used  as  a 
means  of  supplying  heat  to  the  eggs,  all  preceding  work  having 
been  done  by  heated  air. 

In  1845  a  self-regulating  valve  was  invented,  which  regulated 
the  temperature  or  reduced  it  when  too  high.  This  device  opened 
the  way  and  made  possible  the  modern  self-regulating  incubator. 
The  following  year,  in  an  attempt  to  imitate  the  natural  method, 
a  special  apparatus  was  constructed  to  supply  heat  from  above. 
There  was  no  noticeable  advance  from  this  time  until  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  when,  owing  to  the  increasing 
demand  for  poultry,  largely  because  of  increased  population,  much 
construction  work  was  done  in  this  country  and  abroad,  resulting 
in  many  new  and  superior  types  of  incubators. 

To  Charles  Cyphers  belongs  much  of  the  credit  for  developing 
in  America  the  commercial  artificial  incubator.  While  he  was  not 
by  any  means  the  first  experimenter  in  this  line,  yet  he  accom- 
plished much,  and  made  improvements  which  soon  reduced  the 
process  to  a  practical  science,  and  enabled  any  one  of  limited 
means  to  own  and  successfully  to  operate  an  incubator.  Since 
1870  many  improvements  have  been  worked  out,  with  the  result 
that  different  models  have  been  put  on  the  market.  Many  of 
these  are  good  structures  of  desirable  type,  but  many,  too,  are 
faulty  in  design  and  poorly  built,  therefore  cannot  be  expected 
to  work  successfully.  The  aim  has  been  to  construct  an  incubator 
which  would  be  operated  by  any  one,  in  any  place,  with  the  least 
possible  care  and  oversight,  and  in  great  measure  this  has  been 
accomplished.  Yet  in  many  important  ways  the  incubator  must 
be  improved  in  order  to  make  it  as  efficient  as  the  hen. 

Incubator  Houses  and  Cellars. — The  successful  operation  of 
any  incubator  depends  largely  upon  the  place  in  which  it  is  located, 
and  the  rapidity  and  ease  with  which  the  operator  can  secure  and 
hold  the  desired  temperature.  Therefore,  the  design,  construction, 
and  location  of  the  building  or  room  in  which  the  incubators  are 
to  be  placed  must  be  carefully  considered.  The  requirements  of 
the  incubator  room  are  briefly  stated  as  follows:  (1)  Even  tem- 
perature, (2)  plenty  of  ventilation,  (3)  abundance  of  moisture. 

It  must  be  possible  to  maintain  in  the  incubator  room  approxi- 
mately an  even  temperature  of  any  desired  degree.  Variation 


328 


ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 


within  certain  limits  is  permissible,  but  sudden  fluctuations  beyond 

this  limit  will  preclude  the  maintenance  of  an  even  temperature 

within  the  machine. 

The  room  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  thoroughly 

and  frequently  ventilated,  for  fresh  air  is  essential  to  the  growing 

embryo,  and  good  ventilation 
will  carry  off  the  fumes  from 
the  lamps. 

Arrangements  should  also 
be  made  to  materially  increase 
the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere 
when  desired,  since  it  has  been 
proved  conclusively  that  moist 
atmosphere  is  essential  in  incu- 
bation. 

Design. — These  require- 


FIG.   155. — Working  plans  for  incubator  cellar. 

ments  are  best  met  by  a  house  built  partly  below  the  ground 
(Fig.  155).  The  machines  are  then  placed  low,  as  this  makes  them 
less  susceptible  to  changes  of  weather, — the  room  will  be  cooler  in 
summer  and  warmer  in  winter.  Two  courses  are  open:  Either  to 
put  up  an  incubator  room  in  some  permanent  building,  or  to  con- 
struct a  low  one-story  house  specially  for  the  purpose.  The  latter 
is  the  usual  plan,  and,  all  points  considered,  is  undoubtedly  the 
best.  Where  a  room  is  fitted  up  in  a  building  designed  for  other 
purposes,  there  is  always  danger  of  fire,  and  the  rate  of  insurance 
is  higher.  Besides,  unless  the  structure  is  exceedingly  well  built, 
the  eggs  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  shock  or  jarring  from  above. 


INCUBATOR    HOUSES  AND  CELLARS 


329 


A  building  put  up  expressly  for  incubation  purposes  need  not 
be  very  expensive;  but  a  few  requirements  must  be  provided 
(Fig.  156,  A,  B,  C,  D).  The  floor  should  be  from  four  to  five  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  the  ceiling  from  eight  to  ten 
feet  high,  giving  about  five  feet  below  ground  and  five  feet  above. 
Double  walls,  especially  above  the  ground,  are  essential,  as  they 
aid  materially  in  keeping  the  temperature  uniform.  The  subgrade, 
or  wall  below  the  ground,  is  best  constructed  of  poured  concrete 


FIG.  156. — Four  views  showing  construction  of  hollow-tile  incubator  cellar.  A,  Forms 
ready  for  pouring  concrete  foundation  wall;  B,  forms  removed;  C,  hollow-tile  construction 
and  manner  of  framing  roof;  D,  completed  cellar. 

or  stone  (Fig.  81),  while  the  side  wall  above  ground  can  be  made 
of  lumber, — 2  x  4  inch  studding,  sheathed  inside  and  out.  Or 
it 'can  be  constructed  of  hollow  tile,  which  has  proved  satisfactory, 
as  it  is  almost  a  non-conductor  of  heat.  Such  a  tile,  well  stuccoed 
inside  and  out,  is  economical,  durable,  easily  built,  not  susceptible 
to  temperature  and  moisture  variations,  and  can  be  quickly  and 
easily  cleaned. 

The  building  should  have  a  loft  overhead,  to  insure  uniformity 
of  temperature.  For  this  purpose,  a  two-pitch  or  gable  roof  is 
best,  and  it  is  advisable  to  put  in  heavy  ceiling  rafters  and  a  solid 
board  floor,  so  that  the  loft  can  be  used  for  storage  purposes. 

Ventilation. — It  is  unnecessary  to  install  an  expensive  ventilat- 


330  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

ing  system  in  tne  incubator  cellar.  The  best  plan  is  to  cut  in  the 
wall  single-sash  windows,  three  by  three  feet,  one  for  every  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  of  air  space.  These  windows  should  be  double, 
the  outer  sash  hinged  at  the  top,  to  be  raised  upward  and  outward, 
the  inner  sash  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  opening  inward  and  down- 
ward. Neither  sash  should  be  open  more  than  about  45  degrees, 
which  will  permit  the  air  to  circulate  freely  through  the  cellar, 
but  not  to  blow  directly  upon  the  machines.  A  direct  draught 
over  them,  especially  during  the  high  winds  of  early  spring,  is  apt 
to  make  the  lamps  smoke,  or  to  blow  them  out  entirely.  The  use 
of  double  sash  creates  an  air  chamber  which  helps  to  keep  the 
temperature  and  humidity  even.  It  is  well  to  have  a  vestibule 
with  double  swinging  doors  at  the  entrance  of  the  building  or 
cellar,  to  cut  off  drafts  of  outside  air. 

Interior. — A  specially  constructed  incubator  cellar  should  be 
plastered  with  cement,  and  have  a  concrete  floor,  raised  a  little 
in  the  centre  so  as  to  carry  the  water  off  to  either  side.  This  per- 
mits the  thorough  wetting  of  the  floor,  and  also  helps  to  maintain 
the  right  degree  of  humidity.  A  part  of  the  incubator  cellar  should 
be  partitioned  off  into  a  small  room  which  can  be  easily  darkened 
and  used  for  testing.  Here  shelves  should  be  built  at  a  convenient 
height  for  holding  testing  lamps  and  egg  traps,  and  a  long  table 
may  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  room  for  turning  and  cooling; 
the  necessity  of  this  depends  somewhat  upon  the  type  of  the 
incubator,  for  some  are  so  constructed  that  the  trays  may  be 
placed  on  top.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  shelf  covered  with  tin  or 
asbestos,  preferably  the  former,  for  filling  and  trimming  lamps, 
and  over  this  other  shelves  for  the  storage  of  extra  lamps,  wicks, 
and  other  supplies.  The  safest  way  to  handle  the  oil  is  to  bring 
it  in  from  the  storage  tank  through  a  feed  pipe,  which  does  away 
with  the  necessity  of  carrying  small  oil  cans  around,  and  perhaps 
saturating  parts  with  oil.  There  should  be  a  closet  or  shelf  for 
thermometers,  hygrometers,  and  incubator  records.  Running 
water  should  be  piped  into  the  building,  and  a  faucet  conveniently 
located  with  hose  attachment  for  sprinkling. 

The  cost  of  such  a  building  is  an  item,  and  it  is  best  to  figure 
this  out  from  the  .capacity  in  dozens  of  eggs.  Of  course,  the  cost 
of  a  building  specially  designed  will  be  greater  than  if  a  room  is 
fitted  up  in  a  building  meant  for  other  purposes,  but  the  advantages 
of  the  former  will  counterbalance  the  cost.  An  estimate,  per 
dozen-egg  capacity,  will  vary  considerably,  according  to  its  type 


TYPES  OF  INCUBATORS 


331 


and  the  size  and  style  of  the  incubators.  An  economical  cellar 
using- many  small  machines  in  single  tiers  can  be  constructed  for 
about  $1.00  per  dozen  eggs,  possibly  less — even  as  low  as  fifty 
cents  per  dozen  eggs. 

Location. — One  of  the  best  locations  for  an  incubator  building 
or  cellar  is  on  a  side  hill.  Setting  the  building  on  the  slope  does 
away  with  one-half  of  the  excavating,  and  at  the  same  time  per- 
mits an'entrance  on  the  same  grade  as  the  cellar  floor.  This  fur- 
nishes a  good  outlet  for  air,  and  obviates  the  necessity  of  coming 
up  and  down  stairs  upon  entering  or  leaving  the  cellar. 

The  building  should  be  near  the  dwelling  or  the  keeper's  quar- 
ters, since  it  needs  attention  early  in  the  morning  and  late  at  night. 
If  within  easy  access  of  the  brooder  house,  it  will  minimize  labor 
when    removing   the 
chicks,  and  also  lessen 
the   danger   of    chilling 
them. 

Types  of  Incubators. 
— There  are  two  general 
types  of  incubators,  the 
distinction  being  based 
on  the  manner  in  which 
heat  is  supplied  to  the 
eggs.  The  problem  in 
artificial  incubation  is 
to  maintain  a  steady 
temperature  of  approx- 
imately 103°  F.  and  care- 
fully to  regulate  the  atmospheric  moisture.  In  the  various  makes 
of  incubators  heat  is  imparted  to  the  eggs  in  two  ways, — directly  by 
hot  air  from  a  kerosene  lamp  (Fig.  157) ;  and  by  air  heated  by  com- 
ing into  contact  with  a  hot- water  tank  over  a  kerosene  lamp. 

A  brief  comparison  of  these  two  methods  may  be  made.  With 
a  hot-air  machine  an  even  temperature  can  be  kept  up.  Since 
the  air  is  heated  directly  by  the  lamp,  any  increase  or  reduction 
of  the  flame  is  immediately  felt  in  the  egg  chamber;  whereas  with 
a  hot-water  machine  the  heat  from  the  lamp  must  be  imparted 
to  the  water,  thence  to  the  air  in  the  incubator,  and  this  consumes 
more  time.  With  hot-air  machines  there  is  no  copper  or  tin  tank 
to  be  kept  filled  with  water,  hence  no  danger  of  this  corroding 
and  leaking  in  the  middle  of  a  hatch,  the  water  soaking  the  machine 


Fio.  157. — A  common  type  of  hot-air  incubator. 
The  incubator  is  given  a  "sun  bath"  before  the  next 
hatch. 


332  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

and  spoiling  the  eggs.  A  strongly  built  copper  tank,  with  proper 
care,  should  last  many  years,  but  a  thin  copper  or  tin  tank  can- 
not be  expected  to  last  longer  than  two  or  three  seasons.  Sedi- 
ment soon  forms  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  especially  if  hard 
water  be  used.  The  tank  is  hard  to  clean,  and  this  sediment 
accumulates  in  different  parts  of  the  circuit  and  causes  uneven  radi- 
ation, with  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
machine.  Hot-water  machines  will  hold  the  heat  longer  than  the 
hot-air  type;  they  have  the  advantage  that  when,  for  any  reason, 
the  lamp  goes  out  in  the  night,  there  is  less  danger  of  an  incubator 
cooling  down  to  a  dangerous  degree  before  it  is  discovered. 


FIG.  158. — Modern  mammoth  incubators.  A,  Phantom  view  showing  arrangement 
of  pipes  and  circulation  of  water;  B,  another  make  of  incubator  with  brooders  below.  (Pho- 
tos, A,  Hall  Mammoth  Incubator  Co.;  B,  Candee  Incubator  Co.) 

The  hot-air  incubators  seem  to  be  the  most  popular,  no  doubt 
because  they  require  less  attention,  are  cheaper,  less  complicated, 
and  less  liable  to  get  out  of  repair.  There  are  a  number  of  excellent 
hot-water  incubators  on  the  market,  but,  all  things  considered, 
the  hot-air  type  is  the  safest  and  best. 

Incubators,  according  to  their  size  and  type,  are  also  classified 
as  individual,  or  small,  and  mammoth  incubators.  The  small 
ones  are  composed  of  single  compartments  for  the  eggs,  with 
capacities  of  fifty  to  five  hundred,  each  unit  being  a  separate 
machine  heated  by  its  own  lamp.  The  mammoth  incubator  con- 
sists of  multiple  units — a  number  of  egg  chambers — the  entire 
machine  having  a  capacity  of  from  two  thousand  to  fifteen  or 
twenty  thousand  eggs,  heat  being  generated  in  a  central  heating 
plant  or  boiler,  and  conveyed  to  all  the  compartments  by  means 
of  hot-water  pipes  extending  above  the  egg  trays  (Fig.  158). 


TYPES  OF  INCUBATORS 


333 


The  type  selected  will  depend  largely  upon  the  number  of  eggs 
to  be  hatched,  the  mammoth  incubator  being  best  adapted  to  large 
poultry  plants,  or  community  centres  where  there  is  a  demand  for 
custom-hatched  and  day-old  chicks.  It  is  being  used  to  some 
extent  on  large  broiler  plants,  and  more  and  more  in  commercial 
hatching;  but  its  popularity  is  only  of  recent  origin.  In  custom 
hatching  a  compartment  or  a  number  of  compartments  are  rented 
at  so  much  per  hatch,  the  person  who  hires  the  compartment 
supplying  the  eggs  and  taking  the  chicks,  and  the  operator  fur- 
nishing the  heat  and  doing  the  work  connected  with  running  the 


£   Z,ever  weiykt.  to  balance 

O    Connecting  rod  and  thumb  nut 


£   Zeonp  damper  which  controls  tha 
heat  entering  and  Zeetvino 
the  heater  flue  ** 

FIG.   159.  —  A  complete  self-regulating  device  for  incubators  heated  by  lamps. 

machine.  The  chief  advantages  of  this  are  its  large  capacity  and 
small  cost  for  labor  and  fuel. 

Profitable  hatching  by  artificial  incubation  depends  upon 
securing  a  good  incubator  in  a  good  location.  Some  of  the  points 
to  consider  in  selecting  an  incubator  are: 

The  machine  should  be  best  adapted  in  size  to  the  conditions, 
—the  mammoth  incubator  where  thousands  of  chicks  are  to  be 
hatched  within  a  short  time,  the  individual  lamp  machine  for 
much  smaller  numbers  on  small  poultry  plants  or  farms. 

The  simplicity  of  the  machine  should  always  be  taken  into 
account.  The  more  mechanism  there  is,  the  greater  the  danger 
of  mistakes  in  management;  the  more  parts  there  are  to  get 
out  of  order  and  work  poorly,  the  less  satisfactory  the  machine 
will  be. 

Since  the  effectiveness  of  the  machine  depends  in  great  measure 
upon  the  maintenance  of  a  uniform  temperature  of  desired  degree, 
the  regulating  apparatus  should  be  carefully  examined  (Fig.  159). 
This  apparatus  should  combine  four  requisites:  (a)  A  sensitive 
well-built  thermostat;  (6)  a  simple  but  certain  method  of  trans- 


334  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

mitting  the  action  of  the  thermostat  to  the  lamp ;  (c)  arrangements 
for  easy  adjustment  or  regulation;  (d)  mechanism  that  will  not 
get  out  of  order  with  use. 

It  is  well  to  look  into  the  mechanical  construction  of  the 
machine  if  great  and  permanent  efficiency  is  to  be  expected.  A 
good  incubator  should  be  built  of  well-seasoned,  kiln-dry  lumber, 
and  well  put  together,  so  that  it  will  not  swell  or  warp,  or  the  joints 
come  apart  when  subjected  to  heat,  or  rack  and  come  apart  when 
moved.  It  should  be  substantial,  both  in  appearance  and  detailed 
construction. 

It  should  be  of  plain  design,  well  finished,  with  several  coats 
of  varnish,  making  it  as  nearly  waterproof  as  possible,  so  that 
the  great  humidity  often  present  will  not  affect  the  wood. 

The  past  record  of  the  machine  should  be  investigated, — not 
only  the  advertisements,  but  also  the  practical  results  attained 
by  those  who  have  owned  and  used  one.  The  reputation  which  a 
machine  has  made  is  usually  its  best  recommendation  and  the 
safest  one  to  rely  upon. 

The  machine  bought  should  be  of  not  less  than  one  hundred 
eggs  capacity  or,  better  still,  two  or  three  hundred,  since  a  small 
machine  requires  as  much  time  and  labor  to  operate  it,  and  nearly 
as  much  fuel ;  it  is  also  harder  to  keep  it  at  a  uniform  temperature, 
because,  owing  to  its  small  size,  it  is  more  easily  influenced  by 
changes  in  weather.  In  most  cases  the  poultryman  intends  to 
increase  the  amount  of  hatching  at  some  future  time;  the  larger 
machine  can  be  run  at  one-half  capacity  the  first  year  or  two,  if 
desired,  and  the  number  of  eggs  increased  when  necessary  without 
extra  investment. 

Summary. — It  is  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  an  incubator 
should  never  be  placed  in  a  damp,  dark,  musty  cellar  in  a  dwelling 
house,  for  proper  conditions  cannot  be  maintained  nor  can  it 
be  well  ventilated.  Nor  should  it  be  put  in  an  upstairs  room  in  a 
dwelling  house,  owing  to  the  great  variations  in  temperature  day 
and  night,  and  the  certain  increase  in  insurance  rates. 

The  room  selected  should  be  well  ventilated,  free  from  drafts, 
and  of  an  even  temperature  day  and  night.  The  air  should  con- 
tain a  moderate  amount  of  moisture,  and  it  should  be  possible  to 
increase  this  humidity  if  desirable.  The  machine  should  be  so 
^et  as  to  eliminate  all  danger  of  fire;  the  lamp  box  should  be  at 
least  four  or  five  feet  from  any  combustible  material,  such  as  a 
wooden  partition.  It  should  be  shielded  from  the  direct  rays  of 


CARE  OF  THE  LAMP  335 

the  sun,  for  this  would  materially  raise  the  temperature  in  the 
machine  if  permitted  for  any  length  of  time. 

The  best  place  is  a  cellar  constructed  primarily  for  the  running 
of  an  incubator,  the  requirements  having  been  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  the  designer  and  builder. 

Care  of  the  Incubator. — The  incubator  should  be  kept  in  per- 
fect order,  not  only  during  the  time  of  year  when  it  is  being  op- 
erated, but  when  idle  as  well.  It  should  be  carefully  inspected 
and  overhauled  before  each  period  of  operating.  A  few  days  before 
putting  in  the  eggs,  the  machine  should  be  started,  to  test  its 
accuracy  and  see  that  it  is  properly  adjusted,  also  that  the  lamp 
and  wick  are  in  good  condition,  and  to  dry  out  the  moisture.  If 
it  has  been  allowed  to  stand  in  a  damp  cellar,  it  should  be  worked 
until  the  excess  moisture  has  been  so  dried  out  that  the  doors  and 
ventilators  will  open  easily.  This  preparation  of  the  machine  is 
essential  in  order  to  prevent  trouble  in  the  future;  it  is  also  impor- 
tant from  the  standpoint  of  the  amateur,  for,  by  operating  it  for 
a  few  days  or  a  week,  one  becomes  familiar  with  its  workings. 

As  a  rule,  the  instructions  sent  out  with  the  incubator  should 
be  carefully  studied,  and  the  machine  operated  accordingly,  at 
least  until  a  better  method  is  evolved.  The  manufacturer  should 
best  understand  his  apparatus,  and  is  the  person  most  interested 
in  getting  the  best  results  from  that  particular  machine.  Caring 
for  the  incubator  is  a  matter  of  routine;  a  plan  should  be  marked 
out  and  closely  adhered  to. 

Care  of  the  Lamp. — Since  the  lamp  is  the  source  of  the  heat, 
which  is  the  vital  requirement,  its  workings  must  be  thoroughly 
understood.  The  following  suggestions  may  be  useful: 

1.  Trim  and  fill  the  lamp  at  a  regular  time  every  day;  if  this 
is  done  regularly,  it  will  not  be  overlooked  or  forgotten.    It  should 
never  be  trimmed  or  filled  just  before  turning  the  eggs,  because, 
if  the  hands  are  oily  when  handling  the  eggs,  the  oil  has  a  tendency 
to  fill  up  the  pores  and  check  evaporation  and  the  free  passage  of  air. 

2.  Be  sure  that  the  lamp  is  set  firmly  and  properly  in  the  frame 
or  standard,  and  that  the  burner  and  chimney  flue  fit  evenly,  thus 
preventing  danger  from  smoke  and  possible  fire.     If  the  lamp  is 
improperly  placed  in  the  machine,  it  will  flicker  badly,  and  may 
give  less  heat  than  is  required. 

3.  Do  not  fill  the  lamp  too  full.     Leave  a  little  space  at  the 
top  for  air  and  for  the  movement  of  the  oil.     If  too  full  it  will 
flicker  and  may  go  out  entirely. 


336  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

4.  To  trim  the  lamp,  take  it  from  the  machine  and  lower  the 
wick  to  prevent  smoking.     Do  not  cut  the  wick  with  scissors 
except  once  in  three  or  four  days,  then  most  of  the  charred  por- 
tion can  be  cut  off.    Each  time  the  lamp  is  filled,  scrape  off  the 
charred  portion  of  wick  with  a  small  piece  of  wood  or  match. 
This  is  best  accomplished  by  turning  the  wick  high  enough  to 
bring  the  charred  portion  above  the  wick  guard,  then  the  charred 
end  can  be  quickly  scraped  off.    When  the  flame  has  a  tendency 
to  point  upward  at  either  end,  forming  a  crescent,  clip  the  corners 
slightly;  or,  if  it  points  up  in  the  middle,  trim  the  centre  a  little 
lower.    The  wick  guard  often  becomes  bent,  and  either  wider  or 
narrower  in  places,  which  makes  the  wick  burn  unevenly.     This 
can  be  remedied  by  straightening  it.    Have  a  uniform  even  flame 
with  curved  top,  the  centre  being  a  trifle  higher  than  either  end. 

5.  After  filling,  any  oil  on  the  lamp  should  be  wiped  off  with 
a  cloth.    Keep  it  as  clean  as  possible,  and  so  prevent  odor  and 
danger  of  fire. 

6.  After  lighting  the  lamp,  put  it  in  the  machine  and  turn  it 
low  for  about  five  minutes,  after  which  the  wick  may  be  raised 
as  high  as  desirable.    If  turned  high  at  once,  the  flame  may  flare 
up,  and  the  lamp  smoke. 

7.  Leave  the  flame  so  low  that  there  can  be  no  danger  of  smoke. 
The  wick  should  be  large  enough  to  furnish  the  necessary  heat 
without  having  to  burn  at  a  dangerous  height.     This  should  be 
borne  in  mind  when  selecting  the  machine. 

.  8.  In  regulating  the  temperature,  the  best  method  is  to  keep 
the  lamp  wick  always  at  the  same  height,  and  regulate  it  with  the 
thumbscrew.  An  exception  to  this  rule,  however,  may  be  made 
on  or  about  the  nineteenth  day,  when,  owing  to  the  large  amount 
of  heat  given  off  by  the  mature  embryo,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
turn  the  lamp  wick  down  slightly. 

9.  Be  sure  to  place  the  lamp  so  that  no  draft  can  blow  directly 
upon  it,  as  this  will  make  the  light  flicker  or  smoke,  if  it  does  not 
go  out  entirely. 

10.  The  burner  box  should  be  kept  clean,  free  from  dust,  and 
the  glass  openings  as  clear  as  possible.    Watch  to  see  that  they  are 
not  broken  or  removed,  in  which  case  the  force  of  the  air  will 
make  the  lamp  burn  poorly. 

Filling  the  Egg  Chamber.— The  following  points  should  be 
borne  in  mind:  (1)  Avoid  subjecting  the  eggs  to  a  too  sudden 
change  of  temperature  by  bringing  them  immediately  from  a 


THE  TEMPERATURE  337 

cool  room  of  perhaps  45°  or  50°  to  one  with  a  temperature 
of  100°  to  103°.  Allow  the  eggs  to  warm  up  for  a  short  time 
in  the  incubator  room  before  placing  them  in  the  incubator.  (2) 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  set  the  eggs  on  end,  large  end  up,  for  six 
to  twelve  hours  previous  to  putting  them  into  the  incubator. 
This  allows  the  air  cell  to  adjust  itself,  and  the  yolk  to  float 
in  normal  position.  (3)  When  placed  in  the  tray,  the  eggs  should 
completely  cover  it,  but  not  be  piled  one  upon  another.  The 
temperature  varies  approximately  one  degree  for  every  inch  of 
height,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  subject  all  the  eggs  to 
a  uniform  temperature.  The  process  of  turning,  too,  would  be 
more  laborious,  with  greater  danger  of  cracking  the  eggs.  (4) 
When  'it  is  desirable,  for  any  reason,  to  keep  a  record  of  the 
ancestry  of  the  progeny,  pedigree  egg  trays  must  be  used,  except 
where  a  small  number  of  eggs  are  so  hatched;  in  such  cases,  it 
may  be  possible  to  put  eggs  from  hens  of  different  color  in  the 
same  compartment,  although  this  practice  is  not  always  conducive 
to  the  best  results  in  hatching.  Pedigree  egg  trays  are  composed 
of  small  compartments  in  which  eggs  of  different  hens  or  different 
breeds  may  be  incubated,  the  chicks  when  hatched  being  plainly 
marked  for  future  identification. 

Source  of  Heat. — Keep  up  the  degree  of  heat  best  suited  to 
develop  and  hatch  vigorous  chicks;  in  natural  incubation  this  heat 
is  generated  by  the  mother  hen.  To  accomplish  it  artificially,  oil, 
coal,  gas,  and  electricity  are  commonly  used.  The  kind  of  fuel 
used  is  immaterial,  so  long  as  it  is  adapted  to  the  machine  used. 
The  small  or  individual  incubator  is  usually  heated  by  oil.  A  very 
good  method  is  to  have  the  machine  piped  for  illuminating  gas, 
a  round  burner  being  used;  this  provides  a  uniform  degree  of  heat 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  labor.  Electricity  is  sometimes  used 
in  the  individual  machine,  but  not  commonly.  Coal  is  used  almost 
entirely  in  the  mammoth  machines. 

The  temperature  of  eggs  during  incubation  is  approximately  103° 
F.,  or  from  two  to  three  degrees  lower  than  the  body  temperature 
of  the  hen.  The  temperature  of  eggs  under  hens  has  been  found 
to  vary  from  101°  to  104°,  the  average  being  approximately  103°. 

There  are  two  methods  of  testing  the  temperature  of  the  incu- 
bator; one  is  by  placing  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  in  contact 
with  an  egg,  and  the  other  is  to  take  the  temperature  of  the  air 
above  the  eggs.  The  former  permits  a  possible  error  from  the 
fact  that  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  may  rest  upon  an  infertile 
22 


338  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

egg  or  one  containing  a  dead  germ,  and  such  eggs  have  less  warmth. 
When  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  taken,  the  results  will  be  much 
more  uniform.  When  recording  temperature  by  the  latter  method, 
take  it  on  a  level  with  the  eggs  by  placing  the  thermometer  in  the 
egg  tray,  or  just  above  the  eggs  by  suspending  a  thermometer 
from  the  top  of  the  egg  chamber.  The  latter  method  seems  to 
be  the  better,  because  the  thermometer  is  always  in  place  and 
does  not  need  to  be  removed  when  the  eggs  are  turned,  it  is  easy 
to  read,  and,  if  hung  in  the  centre,  it  will  record  the  average  tem- 
perature of  the  entire  machine.  If  thermometers  are  placed  in 
the  egg  tray  during  hatching  time,  they  are  constantly  liable  to 
be  tipped  over  or  turned  around,  so  that  it  is  impossible  correctly 
to  read  the  temperature. 

A  thermometer  suspended  with  its  bulb  about  one  inch  above 
the  eggs  should  register  one  degree  higher  than  when  on  a  level 
with  the  eggs. 

The  following  temperatures  are  desirable  during  the  incubation 
period,  if  a  suspended  thermometer  be  used  above  the  eggs.  The 
first  week  101°  to  103°,  preferably  103°.  This  should  be  maintained 
as  uniformly  as  possible  until  the  last  few  days  of  the  hatch,  when 
it  is  advisable  to  increase  it  to  103.5°,  but  not  over  104°.  If  the 
temperature  of  the  room  is  considerably  below  60°,  it  will  be  wise 
to  run  the  temperature  higher  than  given,  as  this  is  for  a  room  of 
60°  or  above.  Never  let  the  temperature  go  above  106°;  if  it 
registers  so  high,  it  is  well  to  cool  the  eggs  down  to  100°.  A  high 
temperature  during  the  first  part  of  the  hatch  is  more  apt  to  be 
fatal  than  after  the  twelfth  day,  when  a  temperature  of  even 
110°,  if  not  prolonged,  may  not  prove  disastrous.  If,  at  any 
time  immediately  after  filling  the  lamp  or  adjusting  the  machine, 
the  temperature  is  found  to  be  100°  to  101°,  it  is  not  alarming, 
since  the  eggs  require  considerable  time  to  warm  up  after  cooling. 

It  is  best  to  read  temperatures  morning  and  night  before  at- 
tending to  the  machine.  Do  not  try  to  force  the  temperature  up, 
for  it  has  a  tendency  to  rise  rather  than  fall,  unless  the  room  is 
very  cool.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  temperature  goes  up  to  104° 
or  above,  the  thermostat  or  regulator  must  be  adjusted. 

There  are  in  the  market  a  good  many  automatic  devices  de- 
signed to  notify  the  attendant  when  the  temperature  is  abnormal, 
but  they  are  of  little  practical  value.  The  incubator  should  have 
one  operator,  who  will  look  after  it  and  be  responsible  for  it,  until 
the  hatch  is  completed. 


TURNING  339 

Turning. — The  turning  of  eggs  during  artificial  incubation  is 
a  process  designed  to  duplicate  the  motion  which  the  hen  gjves  to 
the  eggs  in  natural  hatching.  The  effect  of  the  turning  is  to 
change  the  position  of  the  germ;  for,  owing  to  the  high  tempera- 
ture, the  albumin  has  a  tendency  to  break  up,  the  yolk  rising 
higher  and  higher,  allowing  the  germ  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  shell.  Turning  is  also  necessary  to  supply  oxygen  to  the  grow- 
ing embryo,  for  the  germ  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  albumin,  and 
the  albumin  in  tilrn  gets  oxygen  from  the  air  cell  or  through  the 
shell  of  the  egg.  If  the  egg  is  not  turned,  especially  during  the 
later  stages,  the  embryo  will  not  be  of  the  right  shape  or  in  the 
right  position  in  the  egg,  and  therefore  is  unable  to  hatch. 

The  following  is  a  comprehensive  rule  for  turning.  Begin  turn- 
ing on  the  evening  of  the  third  day,  continue  this  process  each 
day,  morning  and  evening,  until  the  evening  of  the  eighteenth 
or  nineteenth  day,  or  until  the  eggs  show  signs  of  pipping.  Then 
prepare  the  machine  for  hatching,  and  do  not  remove  the  tray 
for  any  purpose. 

Several  methods  are  recommended  for  turning,  and  a  number 
of  appliances  come  with  different  machines.  The  most  common 
of  these  is  the  turning  frame,  the  eggs  being  placed  between  the 
slots,  the  theory  being  that  when  this  frame  is  moved  back  and 
forth  the  eggs  are  rolled  about.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
many  of  the  eggs,  especially  if  of  different  sizes,  are  found  to  be 
in  the  same  position,  and  the  small  ones  are  apt  to  be  cracked. 
The  best  method,  undoubtedly,  is  that  of  hand  turning,  which 
consists  in  placing  the  palm  of  the  hands  on  some  of  the  eggs  from 
the  centre,  and  moving  them  about  the  tray,  trying,  so  far  as 
possible,  to  put  them  into  a  different  position.  If  the  hands  are 
pressed  firmly  on  the  eggs,  this  method  promotes  uniformity,  and 
very  few,  if  any,  eggs  are  cracked  or  broken.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
mark  the  eggs  and  turn  them  halfway  over  each  time;  this  re- 
quires extreme  care,  and  the  amount  of  time  and  labor  expended 
is  not  productive  of  any  better  results.  If  the  incubator  is  of  the 
double-tray  type,  the  trays  should  be  shifted  before  replacing  them 
after  turning,  and  the  ends  reversed  twice  daily,  thus  counteract- 
ing any  variation  in  temperature  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
machine  (Fig.  160). 

Cooling  takes  place  during  the  process  of  turning,  the  object 
again  being  to  imitate  nature.  It  not  only  allows  the  egg  to  cool 
off,  but  at  the  same  time  permits  it  to  secure  a  greater  amount  of 


340 


ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 


oxygen  than  would  be  possible  in  the  machine  itself.  The  length 
of  tim/3  for  cooling  depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the  room 
and  the  season  of  the  year,  and  also  upon  the  ventilation  of  the 
machine.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  definite  rules;  but  it  is  safe 
to  begin  cooling  on  the  fifth  day,  and  cool  from  four  to  five  minutes 
in  a  room  heated  to  about  60°.  Do  not  let  them  cool  any  longer 
than  the  time  required  for  turning,  in  a  room  which  is  much  cooler 
than  this.  After  the  fifth  day,  the  time  for  cooling  should  be 
gradually  increased,  until,  during  warm  weather  and  in  the  latter 


FIG.  160. — Interior  view  of  incubator  cellar.      Operator  turning  and  cooling  eggs.     Water 
is  used  on  the  floor  to  increase  moisture  in  the  incubators. 

part  of  the  hatch,  the  eggs  may  be  cooled  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes  with  very  good  results.  The  exact  degree  and  process 
of  cooling  are  more  or  less  disputed  points,  experiments  proving 
that  environment  varies  so  much  that  no  positive  rule  can  be  laid 
down.  It  is  evident  that  the  eggs  are  considerably  cooled  during 
turning,  and  that  the  machine  also  cools  off  somewhat  while  the 
eggs  are  being  taken  out  and  replaced.  Stop  the  cooling  at  the 
same  time  that  the  turning  is  stopped,  or  about  the  eighteenth  or 
nineteenth  day. 

Ventilation  is  essential,  in  order  that  the  gas  generated  by  the 
egg  may  be  thrown  off  and  replaced  by  a  supply  of  fresh  air  and 


VENTILATION  341 

oxygen.  The  problem  is,  how  to  supply  fresh  air  without  too 
great  a  loss  of  moisture  from  the  egg,  due  to  evaporation.  Evap- 
oration of  the  fluid  in  the  egg  is  influenced  by  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  air  circulates  through  the  egg  chamber,  and  by  the 
humidity  of  the  air  itself;  hence  the  factors  of  ventilation  and 
moisture  are  closely  related. 

There  are  three  methods  of  ventilating  the  smaller  or  individual 
incubator.  The  first,  and  most  efficient,  is  by  the  introduction  of 
fresh  air  into  the  machine,  the  intake  being  at  the  lamp  box  and 
the  pure  air  heated  as  it  enters  the  machine.  The  second  is  by 
the  use  of  small  ventilators  controlled  by  sliding  valves  which  lead 
directly  to  the  inside  of  the  machine  through  the  wall.  The  third 
is  ventilation  through  the  bottom  of  the  incubator,  the  bottom 
being  provided  with  openings  or  slits,  and,  in  some  cases,  so  con- 
structed that  it  can  be  let  down.  In  some  machines  these  three 
modes  are  combined,  while  in  others  only  one  or  at  the  most  two 
are  used.  Whatever  the  system  used,  there  should  be  an  abundance 
of  fresh  air  passing  slowly  through  the  chamber,  and  this  can  be 
regulated  by  muslin  or  burlap  curtains  to  cut  off  any  draft. 

Evaporation  and  Moisture. — The  real  gauge  of  the  ventilation 
is  the  evaporation  which  takes  place  within  the  egg  in  a  given 
time;  hence,  one  of  the  best  means  of  ascertaining  the  exact  rela- 
tion between  ventilation  and  moisture  is  a  study  of  this  evapora- 
tion. It  can  be  determined  by  testing  or  candling  the  eggs,  and 
noting  the  increased  size  of  the  air  cell.  For  instance,  when  the 
egg  is  first  put  into  the  machine  the  air  cell  is  very  small,  being 
only  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  depth.  Under  normal  con- 
ditions it  will  have  increased  on  the  third  day  to  about  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth,  on  the  eighth  day  to  about  three- 
eighths,  on  the  fifteenth  day  to  about  five-eighths,  and  on  the 
nineteenth  day  to  about  three-quarters.  This  is  caused  by  air 
penetrating  the  shell  and  taking  the  place  formerly  occupied  by 
the  evaporated  liquids. 

The  evaporation  which  takes  place  in  the  normal  egg  during 
incubation  has  beeji  determined  as  follows:  One  hundred  eggs 
of  average  size  will  lose  during  the  first  five  days  of  incubation 
8.28  ounces,  during  the  next  seven  days  12.05  ounces,  and 
during  the  next  seven  days  12.044  ounces.  This  shows  the  high 
degree  of  loss,  and  the  loss  becomes  still  greater  as  the  hatch 
progresses. 

Many  experiments  have  been  conducted  to  determine  the  de- 


342  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

sirability  of  retarding  evaporation  in  artificial  incubation  by  in- 
creasing the  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  egg  chamber,  yet  at  the  same 
time  permitting  free  ventilation. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  involving  one  thousand 
eggs  set  in  eight  machines,  four  with  low  and  four  with  high 
humidity,  the  average  in  the  dry  machines  being  56  degrees,  and 
in  the  wet  68  degrees.  The  results  showed  that  increased  moisture 
was  desirable,  and  that  there  was  much  less  loss  in  weight  during 
the  incubating  period.  The  average  loss  of  weight  for  the  wet 
machines  was  0.145  pound,  and  for  the  dry  0.23  pound,  being  nearly 
double  in  the  case  of  the  dry  machines. 

This  same  experiment  also  proved  that  increasing  the  moisture 
within  certain  limits  produced  the  following  results:  (1)  It  in- 
creased the  percentage  of  hatch,  which  was  62.0  per  cent  for  the 
dry  and  69.6  per  cent  for  the  wet.  (2)  The  resulting  chicks 
weighed  much  more  at  hatching  time  and  were  more  vigorous,  being 
0.079  for  the  dry  and  0.081  for  the  wet,  there  being  five  cripples 
in  the  dry  machines  against  one  in  the  wet.  (3)  Produced  greater 
uniformity  in  the  hatch,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  lapse  of 
time  from  pipping  to  complete  hatching,  as  well  as  uniformity  in 
the  chicks  themselves.  (4)  The  chicks  from  the  moisture  machines 
were  much  more  successfully  brooded,  the  percentage  being  52.3 
for  the  dry  against  89.5  for  the  wet. 

The  retardation  of  evaporation  is  an  important  matter.  The 
extent  to  which  it  should  be  carried  depends  on  atmospheric  con- 
ditions surrounding  the  egg  and  in  the  incubator  room.  Evapora- 
tion may  be  checked  by  increasing  the  humidity  in  any  of  the 
following  ways :  By  frequent  sprinkling  of  the  floor  and  walls  with 
water;  by  placing  under  the  egg  trays  moisture  pans,  usually  filled 
with  sand  which  is  kept  wet;  by  putting  a  sponge  or  other  material 
saturated  with  water  in  the  machine;  by  sprinkling  the  eggs  at 
frequent  intervals  with  warm  water;  or  by  limiting  the  ventilation 
by  partially  closing  the  ventilators. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  humidity  can 
be  kept  too  high.  Humidity  is  ascertained  by  an  instrument 
called  a  hygrometer.  The  degree  of  moisture  is  computed  by 
comparing  the  readings  from  two  thermometers,  the  bulb  of  one 
being  wrapped  in  a  moist  wick  or  cloth,  while  the  other  is  dry. 
The  lower  reading  of  the  wet  bulb  is  due  to  evaporation,  hence 
the  difference  between  the  two  readings.  The  amount  of  evapora- 
tion depends  upon  the  humidity  in  the  air.  It  is  impossible  to 


TESTING 


343 


keep  the  wick  of  a  wet-and-dry-bulb  hygrometer  in  good  condition 
in  the  incubator,  because  the  high  temperature  will  quickly  dry 
it  out  and  make  frequent  changes  of  the  wick  necessary.  For 
practical  purposes,  the  spiral  or  horse-hair  hygrometer  is  much 
more  satisfactory.  To  the  inexperienced  operator,  however,  the 
increasing  size  of  the  air  cell  will  be  the  safest  guide. 

Testing. — To  determine  the  fertility  of  the  eggs,  as  well  as  to 
study  the  developing  embryos  and  thus  ascertain  whether  the 
machine  is  running  properly,  it  is  advisable  to  test  or  candle  the  eggs 
once  or,  better,  twice  during 
the  hatch,  preferably  on  the 
seventh  and  fourteenth  days. 
The  egg  tray  should  be  re- 
moved to  a  dark  testing  room, 
and  the  light  for  testing  pro- 
vided either  by  a  kerosene  lamp 
or  an  acetylene  or  electric  light 
placed  in  a  small  tight  box 
with  circular  opening  about 
one  inch  in  diameter.  Electric 
light  is  the  best,  the  light  from 
a  kerosene  lamp  not  being 
powerful  enough  to  penetrate 
the  shell  of  the  egg  (Fig.  161). 

The  egg  tray  should  be 
placed  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  lamp  box,  the  person 
standing  in  front,  with  a  du- 
plicate empty  tray  at  his  left 
hand  in  which  to  put  the  eggs 

as  tested.  The  testing  lamp  should  be  so  placed  that  the  open- 
ing is  about  six  inches  above  the  waist  line  and  one  foot  in 
front  of  the  operator.  The  untested  eggs  should  be  taken  two 
or  three  at  a  time  from  the  full  tray,  and  transferred  one  at  a 
time  to  the  other  hand,  grasping  them  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  with  the  large  or  air  cell  end  outward.  As  the  eggs  are 
moved,  they  are  brought  one  at  a  time  in  front  of  the  opening, 
and  given  a  gentle  rotary  motion.  This  will  move  the  contents,  and 
the  light  penetrating  the  shell  will  reveal  the  presence  or  absence 
of  the  germ,  and  its  condition.  The  chief  points  to  be  determined 
in  the  seventh  day's  test  are  the  size  and  location  of  the  air  cell, 


FIG.  161. — A  useful,  home-made  egg  tester. 
Electric  light  is  used.  Two  holes  allow  the 
testing  of  two  eggs  at  once. 


344  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

the  infertility  of  the  eggs,  dead  germs,  germs  apparently  sticking 
to  the  shell,  and  cracked  eggs  (Fig.  162). 

The  size  of  the  air  cell,  as  previously  stated,  will  vary  with 
the  period  of  incubation  and  the  amount  of  ventilation;  if  it  appears 
too  large  or  too  small,  steps  to  correct  this  should  be  immediately 
taken.  If  the  air  cell  is  too  large,  the  moisture  in  the  air  must  be 
increased  to  lessen  evaporation,  and  if  too  small,  evaporation 
must  be  promoted  by  increasing  ventilation.  Air  cells  not  prop- 
erly located  at  the  larger  end  of  the  egg  are  due  either  to  the  fact 
that  the  eggs  were  kept  too  long  in  one  position  before  being  put 
in  the  machine,  or  to  improper  turning  prior  to  the  seventh  day. 


\ 

¥''*  / 

?A  \  /B 


FIG.   162. — Eggs  seven  days  in  the  incubator  as  seen  when  tested.     A,  Dead  germ;  B, 
living  germ;  C,  infertile  egg. 

An  egg  which  appears  to  be  absolutely  clear  or  translucent 
without  a  dark  spot  with  converging  lines  is  infertile.  All  such 
eggs  should  be  plainly  marked  and  put  in  a  separate  place.  These 
can  be  profitably  used  for  chick  feeding,  by  boiling  them  hard 
and  feeding  them  separately  or  mixed  with  mashes.  White- 
shelled  eggs,  if  tested  out  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  may  be  safely 
used  for  baking  purposes.  The  normal  egg  at  this  time  will  have 
a  clearly  defined  air  cell;  the  germ  will  be  noted  about  one-third 
of  the  way  from  the  large  end,  looking  like  two  dark  spots  lying 
close  together,  one  a  trifle  larger  and  darker  than  the  other;  radiat- 
ing from  the  germ  will  be  seen  numerous  dark  lines,  crossing  and 
recrossing,  which  are  the  veins  of  the  embryo.  If  the  germ  is  not 
readily  detected,  it  can  be  brought  to  the  surface  by  rotating  the 
egg  slightly.  At  this  time  an  infertile  egg,  especially  in  a  strong 
light,  will  show  a  slight  dark  area  in  the  centre,  which  is  yolk. 


ATTENTION  DURING  HATCHING  345 

Eggs  showing  a  bright-red  line  fixed  to  the  shell  in  the  form  of  a 
semicircle,  with  the  germ  in  the  centre,  contain  dead  embryos. 
A  dark-red  spot  seen  against  the  shell  is  undoubtedly  a  germ  which 
died  from  want  of  turning.  A  hazy  air  cell  and  small  faint  germ 
indicate  weakness  and  lack  of  vitality,  and  the  chances  are  that 
the  egg  will  not  be  hatched. 

When  the  testing  is  finished,  eggs  which  have  passed  inspection 
should  be  immediately  returned  to  the  machine.  When  making 
the  test  the  usual  turning  and  cooling  are  unnecessary,  as  the  eggs 
get  enough  of  both  during  the  process.  On  the  fourteenth  day 
the  same  routine  is  followed;  this  time,  however,  the  object  is 
merely  to  determine  the  increased  size  of  the  air  cell  and  its  re- 
quirement of  moisture,  as  well  as  to  remove  any  eggs  in  which 
the  germ  has  died  during  the  intervening  time.  Normal  eggs  will 
now  show  a  rather  large  air  cell,  with  a  clear-cut  and  distinct 
dividing  line,  the  remainder  of  the  egg  being  extremely  but  uni- 
formly dark  in  color.  By  rotating  it  slowly  the  outline  of  the 
embryo  chick,  greatly  increased  in  size,  can  be  seen.  Any  which 
at  this  time  show  no  sign  of  vitality,  but  a  haziness  around  the 
air  cell  with  a  clear  area  near  the  edges,  should  be  discarded,  as 
they  undoubtedly  are  dead  or  will  not  hatch  into  vigorous  chicks. 
All  eggs  which  denote  dead  or  weak  germs  should  be  marked,  placed 
in  a  separate  tray,  and  subsequently  buried,  as  they  are  now  unfit 
for  eating.  During  extremely  cold  weather,  to  prevent  chilling,  the 
eggs  should  not  be  left  out  any  longer  than  is  necessary. 

Records. — The  running  of  an  incubator  is  a  matter  of  detail, 
and  the  study  of  past  records  will  enable  one  to  determine  the  best 
method  to  pursue  under  given  conditions,  and  the  incubation 
possibilities  of  a  given  flock.  Hence,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  an 
accurate  account  of  all  the  operations  connected  with  each  hatch, 
but  the  method  should  be  so  simple  and  convenient  as  to  reduce 
the  clerical  work  to  a  minimum.  Such  a  history  will  not  only 
establieh  the  record  of  one  particular  incubator,  but  will  acquaint 
the  poultryman  with  the  conditions  in  his  breeding  pen  as  regards 
the  fertility  and  hatching  power  of  eggs.  Such  a  record  sheet 
can  be  tacked  to  a  light,  smooth  board  suspended  in  front  of  or 
under  the  incubator.  (See  Chapter  XXVI.) 

Attention  During  Hatching. — From  the  time  the  machine  is 
closed,  when  the  first  egg  is  seen  to  pip,  it  should  be  absolutely 
undisturbed,  so  that  the  right  degree  of  temperature — approxi- 
mately 103.5°  to  104° — may  be  maintained.  Before  closing  it, 


346  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

the  sand  tray  or  other  device  for  moisture  should  be  removed,  and 
the  nursery  tray  placed  in  proper  position.  The  wire  in  front  of 
the  egg  trays  should  be  opened,  and  the  tray  placed  with  this 
opening  in  front,  so  that,  when  the  chicks  are  attracted  to  the 
front  by  the  light,  they  will  fall  down  into  the  nursery.  In  most 
machines  it  is  well  to  cover  the  glass  with  a  cloth  or  burlap  during 
the  hatching.  This  keeps  the  chicks  more  contented  and  prevents 
crowding,  and  when  the  burlap  or  cloth  is  removed  they  are 
stronger  and  better  able  to  protect  themselves. 

If  the  hatch  has  been  properly  conducted,  it  should  start  about 
the  nineteenth  or  twentieth  day  after  the  eggs  were  placed  in  the 
machine,  and  all  chicks  which  are  to  hatch  will  probably  be  out 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twenty-first  or  twenty-second  day.  This, 
however,  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  temperature  at  which  the 
machine  has  been  operated  and  with  the  character  or  type  of  eggs 
set.  The  higher  the  temperature  the  earlier  the  hatch  will  start; 
large  brown-shelled  eggs  from  the  heavy  breeds  require  from  one- 
half  day  to  a  day  longer  than  the  thinner-shelled  eggs  from  the 
lighter  breeds.  The  one  important  thing  at  this  time  is  that  the 
hatch  should  be  uniform  and  complete  soon  after  the  first  pipping. 

A  prolonged  hatch  is  rarely  a  successful  one.  If  a  hatch  does 
not  turn  out  properly,  it  is  well  for  the  operator  to  look  over  the 
records  and  see  if  he  is  at  fault.  The  chicks  should  be  left  in  the 
machine  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  after  all  are  hatched. 
As  soon  as  the  hatch  is  complete,  the  egg  tray  should  be  removed, 
and  a  little  fine  grit  and  oatmeal  be  thrown  into  the  nursery;  this 
will  stimulate  the  digestive  system  of  the  chicks  and  teach  them 
to  pick  up  feed.  It  is  rarely  of  any  use  to  remove  from  the  shell 
chicks  which  are  incapable  of  getting  out  themselves. 

Poor  hatches  may  be  due  to  various  causes,  such  as  poor  eggs, 
faulty  condition  of  the  breeding  stock,  or  want  of  care  previous 
to  putting  in  incubator.  Given  good  eggs  at  the  start,  disappoint- 
ment is  most  often  the  result  of  inexperience  and  poor  management 
of  the  machine,  especially  shown  by  irregularity  in  attendance 
and  imperfect  regulation  of  the  ventilation  and  humidity.  To 
operate  an  incubator  successfully  the  attendant  must  make  up  his 
mind  to  put  considerable  thought  and  effort  into  the  work  and  to 
perform  the  duties  methodically. 

Another  factor  in  low  hatching  is  a  poor  thermometer.  To 
prevent  this,  the  accuracy  of  the  thermometers  should  be  tested 
at  the  beginning  of  each  season  by  comparing  them  with  a  clinical 


REVIEW  347 

thermometer  in  warm  water.  A  thermometer  one  or  two  degrees 
out  of  register  will  ruin  a  hatch,  even  if  all  other  conditions  are 
favorable.  When  the  correction  is  not  more  than  two  degrees,  it 
may  be  marked  on  the  thermometer  and  allowance  made  for  the 
error  when  reading. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  artificial  incubation  and  brooding? 

2.  Describe  ancient  methods  of  artificial  incubation. 

3.  Discuss  the  development  of  artificial  hatching  up  to  the  present  time. 

4.  Discuss  three  essentials  of  an  efficient  incubator  cellar. 

5.  Discuss  in  detail  incubator  cellar  design. 

6.  Describe  the  double-sash  plan  for  securing  ventilation. 

7.  Where  is  the  best  location  for  the  incubator  cellar?     Why? 

8.  Compare  hot-air  and  hot-water  incubators. 

9.  Discuss  the  possibilities  and  uses  of  a  mammoth  incubator. 

10.  What  seven  points  should  be  considered  when  selecting  an  incubator? 

11.  Where  is  the  best  place  to  run  an  incubator  ?     Why  ? 

12.  Why  test  the  machine  before  filling  the  egg  chamber? 

13.  Give  nine  points  to  remember  in  the  care  of  the  lamp. 

14.  What  care  should  be  exercised  in  filling  the  egg  trays? 

15.  What  are  the  proper  temperatures  at  different  times  for  incubation? 

16.  Describe  two  methods  of  taking  the  temperature  in  the  incubator. 

17.  Give  rule  and  methods  for  turning  the  eggs. 

18.  Why  are  the  eggs  turned? 

19.  What  factors  influence  cooling? 

20.  Tell  of  the  purpose  of  ventilation,  and  give  the  methods. 

21.  Discuss  in  detail  the  relation  of  moisture  to  a  successful  hatch. 

22.  How  is  the  percentage  of  moisture  determined? 

23.  When  should  the  eggs  be  tested?     Give  reasons. 

24.  Describe  an  efficient  tester,  and  give  method  of  testing. 

25.  Describe  the  appearance  of:    (1)  An  infertile  egg,  (2)  an  egg  with  a  dead 

germ,  (3)  an  egg  with  a  growing  germ,  on  the  seventh  day. 

26.  Describe  the  appearances  of  eggs  with  a  dead  germ  and  eggs  with  a  live 

germ  on  the  fourteenth  day. 

27.  What  special  attention  is  required  during  the  final  hatching? 

28.  Give  tho  causes  of  poor  hatches. 

References.— Poultry  Experiments,  by  James  Dryden,  Utah  Bulletin  102. 
Incubation  and  Incubators,  by  R.  H.  Wood,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  236. 
Loss  of  Weight  in  Eggs  during  Incubation,  by  Horace  Atwood,  West  Virginia 
Bulletin  73.  The  Fertility  and  Hatching  of  Eggs,  by  Pearl  and  Surface, 
Maine  Bulletin  168.  Some  Factors  Influencing  the  Vigor  of  Incubator  Chicks, 
by  Horace  Atwood,  West  Virginia  Bulletin  124.  Incubation  of  Chicks,  by 
W.  R.  Graham,  Ontario  Bulletin  163.  Artificial  Incubation,  by  G.  Bradshaw, 
New  South  Wales  Farmers'  Bulletin  22.  Chinese  Incubation,  by  D.  G.  Brill, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  1900  Report.  Carbon  Dioxide  under  Setting 
Hens,  Connecticut  Report,  1907.  Humidity  in  Relation  to  Incubation,  by 
W.  H.  Day,  Ontario  Bulletin  163. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
ARTIFICIAL  BROODING. 

ARTIFICIAL  brooding  usually  follows  artificial  incubation,  but, 
where  only  a  few  hundred  chicks  have  been  hatched  in  a  machine, 
they  are  sometimes  brooded  under  hens,  because  this  necessi- 
tates less  attention.  Artificially  brooded  chicks  are  more  subject 
to  certain  diseases,  and  if  neglected  may  not  make  as  rapid  growth 
as  if  brooded  under  hens,  while  at  the  same  time  they  need  more 
care.  The  possibilities  in  artificial  brooding,  however,  are  many; 
and,  if  the  type  of  brooder  and  methods  are  good,  and  the  chick's 
requirements  as  to  feed  and  temperature  are  understood,  just  as 
good,  if  not  better,  results  can  be  secured  as  when  the  hen  is 
used.  The  great  advantage  of  the  artificial  method  is  the  large 
number  of  chicks  which  can  be  handled.  Were  it  not  for  the 
development  of  this  branch  of  poultry  keeping,  the  broiler  in- 
dustry as  we  know  it  to-day  would  have  been  impracticable,  and 
on  the  large  intensive  egg  farms  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  brood  each  year  the  many  thousands  of  chicks  required  to  supply 
future  layers.  There  are  many  brooder  systems  and  many  types 
of  brooder  houses,  all  possessing  advantages  and  disadvantages, 
and  all  adapted  to  certain  conditions. 

Brooder  Houses. — In  the  construction  of  brooder  houses  we 
find  two  general  plans.  (1)  Long  brooder  houses  are  permanent. 
They  may  be  from  fourteen  to  twenty  feet  wide,  and  from  fifty 
to  several  hundred  feet  in  length  (Fig.  163).  (2)  Colony  brooder 
houses  are  nearly  always  portable,  and  contain  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  square  feet  of  floor  space;  some,  however,  are  very  small, 
and  contain  only  ten  to  twelve  square  feet  of  floor  space. 

In  choosing  which  type  or  system  of  brooding  to  use,  three 
things  must  be  considered:  (1)  The  number  of  chicks  to  be 
brooded;  (2)  the  season  of  the  year;  (3)  funds  available  for  per- 
manent equipment  of  this  kind.  The  intensive  brooder  equip- 
ment of  the  long-house  type  is  adapted  to  broiler  raising  on  a 
large  scale,  to  the  production  of  many  hundreds,  or  perhaps 
thousands,  of  pullets  for  laying  purposes,  or  to  any  poultry  farm 
where  thousands  of  chicks  are  to  be  brooded  to  advanced  age. 
348 


BROODER  HOUSES 


349 


FIG.  163.— Three  different  types  of  long  brooder  houses.  A,  Feed  house  and  boiler 
room  in  centre.  The  high  fences  make  it  possible  to  keep  adult  birds  in  the  runs  when 
they  are  not  used  for  chicks.  B,  Wide  "half-monitor"  type  of  roof,  allowing  a  centre  walk 
and  brooder  pens  on  each  side.  C,  House  with  gable  roof  and  automatic  ventilation. 


350  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

On  the  small  plant,  with  an  average  farm  flock,  raising  from 
two  hundred  to  perhaps  a  thousand  chicks,  the  portable  colony 
house,  especially  the  gasoline  brooder,  is  one  of  the  best  types 
to  select. 

Long  brooder  houses  may  be  grouped  under  four  heads,  accord- 
ing to  the  methods  of  brooding.  One  system  has  continuous  or 
overhead  pipes  with  hover  boards  above  the  pipes.  Here  the 
pipes  usually  extend  along  the  top  of  each  brooder  compartment, 
these  being  from  four  to  five  feet  in  width.  The  hover  consists 
of  light  boards  hinged  at  the  back,  which  can  be  lifted  up  to 
facilitate  cleaning,  the  hover  usually  covering  the  entire  end  of 
the  brooder  pen.  This  was  the  first  system  extensively  employed, 
but  it  is  becoming  obsolete  because  of  better  types.  The  brooder 
compartments  are  large  and  permit  the  handling  of  many  chicks. 
There  is  not  uniformity  of  temperature  nor  adequate  control  of 
it.  It  is  especially  adapted  for  use  in  the  first  week,  but,  owing 
to  the  great  expense  involved  by  having  two  houses,  this  type 
has  given  way  to  a  system  adapted  to  the  entire  brooding  period. 
In  this  class  of  brooder  house,  the  pipes  are  from  six  to  eight 
inches  above  the  brooder  floor,  the  back  of  the  hover  compart- 
ments usually  being  ventilated  by  apertures  covered  with  muslin. 
In  front  of  the  hover  board  is  suspended  a  slotted  burlap  or  felt 
curtain. 

The  second  brooding  method,  which  is  very  popular  and 
being  more  and  more  generally  adopted,  has  at  the  back  of  each 
individual  pen  a  specially  constructed  compartment  with  a  cir- 
cular portable  hover  (Fig.  164).  Here  the  heat  is  conveyed  from 
a  chamber  below  the  brooder  floor,  through  a  galvanized  metal 
pipe  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  distributed  into 
the  hover  just  below  the  hover  top.  In  this  type  of  brooder  it  is 
essential  that  the  hot-air  chamber  below  be  entirely  isolated, 
so  that  no  heat  can  escape  and  provide  bottom  heat,  the  objec- 
tion being  that  it  causes  weakness  of  legs  and  loss  of  vitality. 
The  hot-air  chamber  is  heated  by  means  of  hot-water  pipes  pass- 
ing through  it  from  a  central  heating  plant.  The  exact  arrange- 
ment of  the  hover  compartment  itself  admits  of  many  variations. 
Some  of  original  models  provide  excellent  advantages;  among 
the  best  being  a  damper  in  the  metal  pipe  which  makes  possible 
the  control  of  each  compartment. 

The  third  method  of  equipping  the  long  brooder  house  is 
to  install  individual  brooders,  either  single  or  double  units. 


BROODER  HOUSES 
A 


351 


FIQ.   164. — 4.  Interior  of  long  house  with  double-pen  'brooders.     B,  Single  compartment 
and  its  hover.     (Courtesy  of  Hall  and  Candee  Companies.) 


352 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 


These   units    are   heated    by    kerosene  lamps   (Fig.   165).     The 
usual   method    is  to  maintain    a   uniform   temperature   in    the 


FIG.   155. — Portable  indoor  hovers  make  it  possible  to  use  the  laying  houses  for  brooding 
purposes.     (Photo  by  Rancocas  Poultry  Farm.) 


FIG.  166. — Small  portable  outdoor  brooders  heated  by  kerosene  lamps. 

brooder  house  by  the  use  of  a  few  coils  of  hot-water  pipe  and  then 
to  increase  the  hover  temperature  to  any  desired  degree  by  the 


BROODER  HOUSES 


353 


use  of  a  lamp.  If  properly  carried  out,  this  method  will  give  almost 
ideal  brooding  conditions,  yet  the  labor  involved  is  so  great,  as 
compared  with  the  central  heating  system,  that,  where  a  large 
number  of  chicks  are  to  be  cared  for,  the  latter  is  by  far  the  best. 

The  fourth  method,  practised  to  only  a  limited  extent,  is  to 
equip  the  long  brooder  house  with  fireless  brooders  or  hovers,  so 
constructed  that  they  conserve  the  heat  given  off  by  the  bird 
itself.  The  troubles  are  that  they  are  hard  to  ventilate  properly, 
that  their  use  induces  a  loss  of  vitality,  and  that  very  few  birds 
can  be  grouped  in  a  single  flock, — not  over  twenty-five  with 
safety.  Fireless  brooders  have  not  been,  and  probably  never 
will  be,  used  very  extensively. 

Colony  brooder  houses  are  of  three  types,  varying  in  size  and 
other  respects.  Those  of  extremely  small  size,  often  only  three 
by  five  feet,  are  equipped 
with  a  portable  hover,  the 
heat  being  generated  by 
a  kerosene  lamp.  These 
are  commonly  called  port- 
able outdoor  brooders  (Fig. 
166),  and  have  a  capac- 
ity of  approximately  fifty 
chicks  each.  They  necessi- 
tate considerable  labor  and 
attendance,  are  hard  to 
clean,  and  the  lamp  is  in- 
accessible. In  the  early 
spring,  too,  it  is  difficult 
to  maintain  the  required  degree  of  heat,  as  they  are  always  ex- 
tremely susceptible  to  outside  changes  in  temperature.  These 
brooders  arp  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  small  poultryman, 
who  broods  only  two  or  three  hundred  chicks. 

The  second  type  of  colony  brooder  house  is  much  larger, 
usually  six  by  eight  or  eight  by  eight  feet  at  the  base,  and  there 
are  various  styles  of  construction.  The  shed-roof  house  is  com- 
mon (Fig.  167).  Such  houses  are  equipped  with  one  or  two, 
usually  two,  portable  or  adaptable  hovers,  which  are  heated 
with  kerosene  lamps.  The  lamp  may  be  placed  outside  or  inside 
of  the  building  as  seems  most  desirable.  Being  of  large  size, 
these  houses  will  accommodate  a  considerable  number  of  chicks. 
After  the  chicks  have  grown  sufficiently,  the  hovers  can  be  re- 
23 


Fia.  167. — Colony  houses  built  on  runners  and 
equipped  with  hovers  heated  by  kerosene  lamps. 
(Photo  from  Maine  Experiment  Station.) 


354  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

moved,  and  the  house  used  as  a  growing  or  summer  colony  house, 
thus  one  house  serves  two  purposes.  These  houses  are  easily 
built,  with  a  four-foot  wall  at  the  back  and  a  six-foot  wall  in  front, 
with  a  shed  roof,  the  front  having  a  muslin  curtain  extending 
from  the  top  halfway  to  the  ground,  on  either  side  of  a  central  door. 

The  third  type  of  colony  brooder  house  is  represented  by 
the  "  gasoline  brooder  house  "  (Fig.  168),  consisting  of  a  portable 
A-shaped  house  with  a  very  low  side  ^  wall  and  eight  by  eight 
feet  of  floor  space.  The  fuel  used  is  gasoline.  The  house  con- 
tains a  large  storage  tank  and  a  blue-flame  gasoline,  burner  which 
permits  of  continuous  operation  for  from  four  days  to  a  week 
without  refilling  the  tank,  this  depending  on  the  season.  The 
hover  is  exceedingly  large,  and  covered  with  a  large  hover  board. 
This  equipment  will  easily  accommodate  two  hundred  chicks. 
It  is  an  exceptionally  warm  house,  and  can  be  used  in  extremely 
cold  weather.  It  provides  for  an  abundance  of  ventilation,  and 
can  be  used  in  warm  weather  as  well  as  cold.  The  cost  is  relatively 
low,  the  entire  equipment,  including  all  lumber,  hardware,  and 
metal,  costing  only  about  thirty-eight  dollars. 

This  type  of  brooder  can  be  put  to  the  following  uses:  (1) 
That  of  a  brooder  house  for  brooding  young  chicks  when  they 
are  taken  from  the  incubator.  (2)  The  source  of  heat  can  be 
removed,  and,  the  house  being  portable,  it  can  be  pulled  out  into 
a  cornfield  or  orchard,  and  be  used  for  a  summer  colony  or  devel- 
oping house.  (3)  When  desired,  it  can  be  used  for  a  small  flock  of 
laying  hens  during  the  winter,  accommodating  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen birds.  Thus  it  becomes  possible  to  utilize  the  equipment 
throughout  the  entire  year,  and  does  away  with  the  necessity 
of  spending  considerable  money  on  a  permanent  long  brooder 
house  which  would  only  be  used  for  limited  periods.  Plans  for  the 
construction  of  this  house  are  shown  in  figure  168  at  A. 

Lumber  for  Gasoline  Brooder  House. 

Foundation,  2  ps.  2"  x  12"  x  8'. 

Floor  joists,  4  ps.  2"  x  4"  x  8'. 

Floor  (double),  65  sq.  ft.  ship  lap,  1"  x  10". 

70  sq.  ft.  3"  flooring. 

Sides  and  roof,  250  sq.  ft.  ship  lap,  1"  x  10". 
Studding  and  rafters,  1"  x  3"  dressed  white  pine. 
Roofing  paper,  300  sq.  ft.,  120  linear  ft. 
Door  and  hover,  40  sq.  ft.  I"  x  10"  white  pine. 
3  cellar  sash,  hinges,  and  nails. 


BROODER  HOUSES 

A 


355 


II    nilllll 


FIG.   168. — Portable  gasoline  brooder   houses.     A,  Working    plans;    B,  brooders  in   actual 

operation. 


356  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

The  tank,  hover,  burner,  and  other  metal  parts  are  made 
especially  for  this  brooder. 

Requirements  of  a  Successful  Brooder. — Regardless  of  the 
type  of  brooder  selected  and  the  method  of  supplying  heat,  there 
are  at  least  three,  and  perhaps  four,  requirements  for  the  best 
brooding  of  chicks.  (1)  A  clean,  easily  accessible,  well-ventilated 
hover,  partially  darkened,  to  which  the  chicks  may  have  free 
access  at  any  time  to  warm  up  quickly.  (2)  A  well-ventilated, 
lighted,  and  moderately  warm  compartment  which  will  provide 
exercise  room  for  the  young  chicks,  also  a  place  for  them  to  stay 
when  the  brooder  run  is  cool  and  they  do  not  need  the  high 
temperature  under  the  hover.  (3)  A  brooder  run  or  pen  protected 
from  storms,  sun,  and  wind,  and  enclosed  within  the  brooder  house 
itself.  (4)  An  outside  yard  for  use  in  pleasant  weather,  providing 
an  abundance  of  range,  also  a  place  for  growing  green  feed. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  requirements  that  the  indoor  brooder 
adapted  to  the  intensive  brooder  house  must  meet  the  first  two 
requirements,  while  an  outdoor  brooder  must  provide  the  first 
three.  The  gasoline  brooder  offers  the  first  three  of  these,  the 
second  being  secured  by  placing  a  board,  temporarily,  a  little  in 
front  of  the  hover,  thus  confining  the  chicks  in  close  proximity 
for  the  first  two  or  three  days,  after  which  time  the  board  is  re- 
moved and  the  chicks  given  the  freedom  of  the  entire  floor. 

Preparation  of  the  Brooder. — Before  the  chicks  are  placed 
in  the  brooder,  put  it  in  the  best  possible  order.  It  should  be 
cleaned  thoroughly  with  a  stiff  bristle  brush;  if  necessary  the 
floor  should  be  scraped  with  a  putty  knife  to  remove  any  drop- 
pings, and  the  interior  should  afterward  be  thoroughly  sprayed 
with  a  good  disinfecting  solution  (50  per  cent  carbolic  acid  or 
zenoleum).  After  the  brooder  has  been  cleaned  the  floor  should 
be  covered  to  a  depth  of  one-quarter  of  an  inch  with  clean  white 
sand,  and  over  this  with  short-cut  alfalfa  or  fine-cut  straw.  The 
lamp  should  be  burning  for  a  day  before  the  chicks  are  put  in, 
so  as  to  heat  the  brooder  to  an  approximate  temperature  of  about 
98°  under  the  hover.  It  is  not  advisable  to  heat  the  hover  com- 
partment to  100°  or  105°,  as  is  sometimes  recommended,  because 
a  high  temperature  tends  to  lower  the  vitality  of  the  chicks, — to 
make  them  much  more  tender  and  more  easily  injured  by  bad 
methods. 

It  is  well  to  inspect  the  brooder  and  see  that  it  is  in  good 
repair,  also  that  the  canvas  curtains  in  front  of  the  hover  or  sur- 


PROPER  TEMPERATURE  357 

rounding  the  same  are  in  order;  if  not,  new  ones  should  be  sup- 
plied, canvas  being  better  than  felt.  Before  lighting  the  lamp 
put  in  a  new  wick.  After  the  temperature  has  been  kept  at  ap- 
proximately 98°  for  twenty-four  hours,  the  brooder  is  ready  for 
the  chicks. 

Transferring  the  Chicks. — The  main  point  in  transferring 
the  chicks  from  the  incubator  to  the  brooder  is  to  do  this  as 
rapidly  as  possible  and  with  the  least  chilling.  It  can  best  be 
done  by  taking  the  chicks  from  the  incubator  and  placing  them 
in  a  basket,  which  can  be  covered  with  burlap  or  cotton  cloth,  if 
the  distance  they  are  to  be  carried  is  great.  Some  incubators 
are  equipped  with  a  nursery  drawer  which  has  a  cloth  cover, 
and  this  has  the  advantage  of  making  it  unnecessary  to  handle 
the  chicks  twice  during  the  transfer.  After  moving  the  chicks 
from  the  incubator,  any  toe  punching  or  leg  banding  necessary 
for  pedigree  breeding  should  be  done  quickly.  (See  Chapter  XIX.) 
If  the  process  is  lengthy,  the  chicks  should  be  taken  from  the 
incubator  and  placed  in  another  warm  machine  as  they  are  suc- 
cessively marked.  It  is  not  wise  to  carry  many  chicks  at  once, 
as  they  are  apt  to  be  crowded  and  injured;  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tray  or  basket  used,  is  safe. 

Proper  Temperature. — The  two  most  important  factors  in 
the  management  of  the  brooder  are  temperature  and  feed.  The 
following  temperatures  are  recommended.  Start  the  brooder  at 
98°  to  100°  under  the  hover;  during  the  second  week  run  it  at  from 
94°  to  96°,  the  third  week  from  90°  to  92°,  during  the  fourth  at 
about  85°.  Experiments  conducted  at  the  New  Jersey  Station 
demonstrate  that  an  exceedingly  high  temperature  continued  for 
many  days  will  lower  the  vitality  of  the  brood  and  cause  a  heavy 
mortality.  Any  extreme  variation  of  temperature,  especially  if 
rapidly  produced,  will  cause  a  heavy  death  rate.  Deaths  usually 
occur  at  the  time  of  or  immediately  after  extreme  variations, 
either  up  or  down.  Variations  in  the  brooder  temperature, 
especially  during  the  first  two  weeks,  are  responsible  for  much 
of  the  mortality  in  artificial  brooding.  The  figures  given  were 
found  to  represent  tjie  most  desirable  hover  temperature.  It  is 
a  good  rule  to  keep  the  hover  just  warm  enough  so  that  the  chicks 
will  spread  out  over  the  floor  and  not  crowd.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  temperature  should  never  be  high  enough  to  cause  panting. 
With  Leghorn  chicks  it  is  unwise  to  run  the  hover  at  low  average 
or  to  lower  the  temperature  too  suddenly,  for  the  young  chicks 


358  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

will  try  to  keep  warm  by  crowding,  and  much  loss  results, — chiefly 
from  suffocation  and  a  general  condition  of  weakness  due  to  low- 
ered vitality. 

The  question  of  sunlight  is  important.  It  is  not  well  to  allow 
direct  sun  rays  to  strike  the  brooder  floor,  because  all  the  chicks 
will  attempt  to  get  into  this  one  spot,  and  will  thus  be  drawn 
away  from  the  hover  heat  and  will  injure  one  another  by  crowding 
or  be  suffocated.  Floods  of  sunlight  produce  no  such  conditions, 
so  that  it  should  be  a  point  to  have  either  an  abundance  of  sun- 
shine or  no  direct  rays  at  all.  The  direct  rays  of  the  sun  should 
never  shine  upon  the  hover,  as  this  causes  great  variations. 

Feeding  Brooder  Chicks. — The  feeding  of  the  artificially 
brooded  chicks  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  poultry 
keeping,  and  successful  nutrition  should  begin  with  hatching  and 
extend  throughout  the  growing  period.  The  first  four  weeks  are 
the  most  trying,  for  this  period  covers  the  delicate  stage  of  the 
chick's  growth,  and  is  the  time  when  the  death  rate  is  greatest  and 
when  mistaken  methods  will  be  shown  by  poor  broods.  The  fol- 
lowing principles  apply  to  baby-chick  feeding,  a  discussion  of 
which  will  better  fix  them  in  the  mind  of  the  feeder.  The  object 
is  to  economically  keep  the  chicks  growing. 

1.  Feeding    Too  Soon, — Just  prior  to   hatching,   the  yolk  is 
drawn  into  the  bird's  body,  and  supplies  the  growing  chick  with 
nourishment  for  a  number  of  hours  after  hatching.     It  is  unde- 
sirable to  tempt  or  force  the  chick  to  eat  within  a  period  of  from 
forty-eight  to  sixty  hours  after  hatching.     The  best  practice  is 
to  supply  fresh  water  and  an  abundance  of  fine  grit  when  putting 
chicks  in  the  brooder,  withholding  all  solid  feed  for  at  least  the 
first  twelve  hours  in  the  brooder.    A  good  plan  is  to  put  the  chicks 
in  the  brooder  in  the  afternoon,  and  give  them  their  first  solid 
feed  in  the  morning. 

2.  First  Feed  Easily  Seen  and  Nutritious. — The  young  chick 
artificially  hatched  has  to  be  taught  many  things  which  under 
natural  conditions  it  learns  from  the  mother  hen;  such  as  search- 
ing for  feed,  and  the  elementary  process  of  eating.    The  natural 
instinct  of  the  chick  is  to  pick  up  bright  things;  for  this  reason, 
feed  which  is  easily  seen  is  desirable.    A  good  practice  is  to  throw 
a  limited  amount  of  rolled  oats  on  the  floor  of  the  brooder, — only 
what  the  chicks  will  eat  in  an  hour  or  two.    Rolled  oats  are  very 
nutritious,   are  relished  by  the  chicks,   and  make  an  excellent 
first  feed;  but  their  continued  use  is  not  advisable.    Hard-boiled 


FEEDING  BROODER  CHICKS  359 

eggs  mixed  with  bread  crumbs  may  also  be  used  as  a  first  feed 
for  young  chicks.  Dry  cracked  grains  are  sometimes  fed,  but 
they  are  less  easily  seen. 

3.  Grit  and  Shell. — Grit  to   enable  the   digestive  organs  to 
perform  their  functions,  and  shell  to  supply  the  lime  so  essential 
in  the  formation  of  bone,   should  not  be  omitted.     The  sand 
placed  on  the  floor  of  the  brooder  will  help,  but  will  not  of  itself  be 
as  effective  as  two  or  three  handfuls  of  sharp  granite  grit  and 
fine  oyster  shell  placed  in  several  conspicuous  places  in  the  brooder. 

4.  Plenty  of  fresh  water  is   essential,   since  the   chick  gains 
weight  rapidly,  much  of  this  gain  being  water.    Stale  or  stagnant 
water  carries  disease  germs  and  is  liable  to  produce  digestive 
disorders  in  the  flock.    Keep  fresh  water  before  them  constant^, 
using  a  small  siphon  fountain,  which  can  be  rinsed  out  daily  to 
keep  it  from  getting  slimy. 

5.  Dry  Cracked  Grains -vs.  Wet  Mash. — Dry  cracked  grains  are 
the  best,  all  things  considered,  since  they  supply  the  elements  re- 
quired and  in  a  form  which  cannot  lead  to  injurious  results.    When 
the  chicks  are  from  six  to  ten  days  old,  this  can  be  economically 
supplemented  with  bran  and  dry  mashes.     Experiments  in  com- 
paring cracked  grains  with  wet  mash  show:  (1)  That  wet-mash 
feeding  will  increase  the  weight  only  slightly  more  than  the  feed- 
ing of  dry  mash  or  dry  cracked  grains  alone.     (2)  Besides  an  in- 
creased weight,  a  greatly  increased  mortality  was  found  where 
the  wet-mash  system  was  used.     (3)  This  increased  mortality  as 
the  effect  of  the  wet  mash  is  not  noticeable  to  any  extent  after 
the  second  week;  hence  it  is  apparent  that  at  this  time  the  chick's 
digestive  system  has  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  it  may  eat 
almost  any  feed  without  detriment.     The  practical  application 
of  these  conclusions  is  to  feed  the  baby  chick  throughout  the  first 
two  critical  weeks  with  cracked  grains  and  dry  mash,  paying 
special  attention  during  this  time  to  health  and  vigor;  after  this 
critical  period  is  safely  passed,  future  feeding  should  be  governed 
largely  by  the  purpose  in  view.     For  example,  if  the  aim  is  in- 
creased gain  in  weight,  as  for  broiler  raising,  wet  mashes  can 
safely  be  fed;  whereas,  if  the  maturing  oi  breeding  stock  is  the 
main  object,  a  dry  mash  supplemented  with  cracked  grains  should 
be  the  choice,  if  normal  development  at  the  lowest  possible  cost 
is  desired. 

6.  Wheat  bran  is  an  important  asset  in  the  feeding  of  the  baby 
chick,  since  it  is  easily  digested  and  contains  a  form  of  vegetable 


360  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

ash  which  is  very  readily  assimilated.  Wheat  bran  alone  may  be 
kept  in  small  hoppers,  and  will  furnish  nearly  a  balanced  ration 
for  the  first  few  weeks. 

7.  Ash    Very   Essential. — The  young  chick  should  not  only 
gain  flesh,  but  must  also  rapidly  make  bone;  and,  in  order  to  do 
this,  a  large  amount  of  ash  must  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  lime 
and  phosphates.     A  certain  amount  of  this  is  consumed  in  the 
form  of  vegetable  juices,  but  it  must  also  be  furnished  from  a 
mineral  and  animal  source.     Shell  and  limestone  grit  are  the  two 
most  common  mineral  sources,  and  meat  scrap  and  crushed  bone 
the  two  most  common  animal  sources.     Experiments  show  that 
of  these  products  bone  is  the  most  efficient,  producing  greater 
gain  in  weight  more  quickly  and  with  lower  mortality  and  less  cost. 

8.  Feed   Little  and  Often. — Owing  to  the  small  size  of  the 
digestive  system  of  the  young  chick,  and  its  heavy  feed  require- 
ments in  proportion  to  its  size,  it  is  wise  to  give  only  small  amounts 
of  feed  at  a  time  and  to  feed  often.    The  practice  should  be  to 
feed  four  or  five  times  a  day  during  the  first  week,  gradually 
diminishing  the  number  of  feedings  until  the  end  of  the  second 
week.     Cracked  grains  may  be  fed  three  times  a  day,  and  dry 
mash  kept  before  them  all  the  time  after  the  second  week. 

9.  Avoid   Sloppy    Wet    Feed. — The    young    chick's    digestive 
system  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  assimilation  of  wet  mashes, 
even  after  it  is  possible  to  feed  them.     Moreover,  they  make  it 
impossible  to  keep  the  floor  of  the  brooder  in  a  clean,  sanitary 
condition,  and  to  prepare  and  feed  them  involves  a  great  deal  of 
labor,  so  that  their  use  during  the  early  growing  period  should 
be  discouraged,  except  in  the  case  of  broiler  raising. 

10.  Animal  Protein. — When  mixing  a  ration  it  is  well  to  use  some 
protein  from  an  animal  source,  experiments  showing  that  the  best 
gain  in  weight  follows  the  feeding  of  a  ration  from  two  to  ten  per 
cent  of  which  is  animal  substance,  the  common  sources  being  meat 
scrap  and  bone.     It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  feed  more  than 
about  two  per  cent  of  this  material  for  the  first  week,  since  it  is 
rather  hard  to  digest;  after  that  time  the  amount  can  be  increased 
until,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  week,  it  reaches  about  ten  per  cent. 

11.  Keep  Chicks  Busy  and  Hungry. — The  practice  should  be 
to  feed  only  what  the  chicks  will  eat  up  quickly,  so  that  at  the 
next  feeding  they  are  anxious  and  ready  for  feed.    This  prevents 
the  loss  of  feed  by  its  becoming  dirty,  in  which  case  they  will  not 
eat  it,  and  also  gives  them  an  appetite  and  a  chance  to  exercise. 


MANY  METHODS  OF  FEEDING  361 

12.  Succulent  material  is  just  as  essential  in  the  baby-chick 
ration  as  it  is  in  that  of  the  laying  hen.    It  can  best  be  supplied 
in  the  form  of  sprouted  oats,  lettuce,  or  ground  vegetables,  such 
as  mangels,  beets,  and  turnips. 

13.  Feed   Early  and   Late. — It  is  just  as  necessary  to  feed 
extremely  early  and  rather  late  as  it  is  to  feed  little  and  often. 
The  time  between  the  feeding  at  night  and  the  first  feeding  in 
the  morning  is  at  best  rather  long,  and  it  can  be  materially  short- 
ened by  feeding  early  and  late. 

14.  Induce   Exercise. — In  order  to  keep  the  chicks  in  good 
physical  condition  and  growing,  give  them  plenty  of  exercise. 
This  can  best  be  done  by  covering  a  considerable  area  of  the 
brooder  floor  with  a  thin  layer  of  chaff  or  fine  litter,  and  after  the 
first  day  or  two  feed  the  ground  grain  in  this  material. 

15.  Clean  Feeding. — Health  is  the  one  great  essential,  and 
in  order  to  promote  this  the  feed  must  be  clean.    This  point  is 
important  when  feeding  wet  mashes.     The  mash  should  not  be 
allowed  to  remain  from  one  period  to  another,  since  it  will  become 
sour.    Nothing  will  upset  the  digestive  system  of  the  chick  more 
quickly  than  sour  feed.    The  litter  and  sand  in  the  feeding  com- 
partment should  be  kept  as  free  as  possible  from  droppings,  and 
should  be  changed  frequently. 

Many  methods  of  feeding  are  in  use,  some  of  which  bring 
uniformly  good  results  and  are  especially  recommended.  Two 
methods  or  plans  are  here  outlined.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  best  ration  to  suit  all  conditions. 

The  first  eighteen  hours  in  brooder, — grit,  shell,  and  water, 
with  short-cut  alfalfa  on  the  floor  of  the  brooder. 

The  day  following, — pinhead  oatmeal,  three  feedings. 

The  next  five  days, — feed  the  following  cracked-grain  ration 
on  the  brooder  floor  five  times  daily,  giving  only  what  they  will 
clean  up  between  feedings: 

Cracked  corn 20  Ibs.       Granulated  milk  (fine). 10  Ibs. 

Fine  cracked  wheat 25  Ibs.       Crushed  peas 3  Ibs. 

Pinhead  oatmeal 5  Ibs.       Fine  charcoal 3  Ibs. 

Supplemental  to  this  ration, — hard-boiled  eggs  once  a  day, 
sprouted  oat  tops  twice  daily  in  small  amounts. 

The  seventh  day, — start  feeding  wheat  bran  in  small  hoppers, 
letting  it  stand  before  the  chicks  two  hours,  and  omit  the  noon 
grain  feeding. 


362  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

The  eighth  to  fourteenth  day, — bran  constantly  in  hoppers, 
and  cracked  grain  four  times  daily. 

The  third  to  eighth  week, — keep  the  following  dry-mash  con- 
tinually before  them  and  feed  grain  three  times:  10  Ibs.  bran; 
5  Ibs.  corn  meal;  5  Ibs.  sifted  ground  oats;  1  Ib.  meat  scrap,  in- 
creased in  two  weeks  to  about  2  Ibs. 

Another  Plan. — The  following  rations  are  for  feeding  chicks 
to  be  raised  as  breeders,  or  as  layers,  from  hatching  to  maturity: 

First  Week. 

1.  Equal  parts  by  weight  of  rolled  oats,  bread  crumbs,  chick- 
size  grit,  and  half  part  chick  charcoal.    Feed  five  times  a  day  in 
a  tray  as  much  as  will  be  cleaned  up  in  fifteen  minutes. 

2.  Equal  parts  wheat  bran  and  sifted  beef  scrap  in  a  hopper 
before  the  chicks  all  the  time. 

3.  Sour  milk  or  buttermilk  to  drink, — no  water. 

Second  Week. 

4.  One-half  of  formula  for  first  week,  and  half  good  commercial 
chick  feed,  mixed  and  scattered  over  litter  four  times  a  day. 

5.  Same  as  No.  2. 

6.  Same  as  No.  3. 

Third  to  Sixth  Week. 

7.  Commercial  chick  feed  that  does  not  contain  over  twenty 
per  cent  corn   or  two  parts  cracked  wheat,  two  parts  pinhead 
oatmeal,  one  part  millet,  and  one  part  cracked  corn,  fed  liberally 
once  a  day,  about  4  P.M.,  in  litter  three  or  four  inches  deep  and  to 
be  thoroughly  mixed  with  litter. 

8.  Equal  parts  bran,  wheat  middlings,  and  beef  scrap,  always 
available  and  in  hopper. 

9.  Equal  parts  sour  milk  and  water. 

10.  Beef  scrap,  grit,  oyster  shells,  and  charcoal  always  avail- 
able in  hopper. 

Seventh  to  Tenth  Week. 

11.  Equal  parts  whole  wheat,  hulled  oats,  and  cracked  corn 
in  deep  litter  once  a  day. 

12.  Equal  parts  of  bran,  wheat  middlings,  corn  meal,  and  one- 
half  part  linseed  meal. 

13.  Fresh  water. 

14.  Same  as  No.  10. 


COMMON  CAUSES  OF  DEATH   IN  THE   BROODER       363 

Eleventh  Week  to  Maturity. 

15.  Equal  parts  whole  wheat,  oats,  and  cracked  corn  always 
available  in  hopper. 

16.  Same  as  No.  12.     17.  Same  as  No.  13.    18.  Same  as  No.  14. 
Dry-Mash  for  Chicks. — The  following  dry-mash  is  well  adapted 

for  general  feeding  of  growing  chicks  during  any  period,  such  as 
developing  them  for  laying  or  breeding  purposes  or  the  feeding 
of  cockerels  which  are  later  to  be  finished  for  roasters : 

Wheat  bran 50  Ibs.       Alfalfa , ...  / 10  Ibs. 

Ground  oats 10  Ibs.       Meat  scrap 5  Ibs. 

Gluten 10  Ibs.       Bone , 5  Ibs. 

Corn  meal 10  Ibs. 

Total 100  Ibs. 

The  above  ration  should  be  fed  dry  in  self-feeding  hoppers, 
and  some  of  it  kept,  before  the  birds  all  the  time. 

Common  Causes  of  Death  in  the  Brooder. — As  was  previously 
stated,  a  high  mortality  usually  accompanies  artificial  brooding, 
averaging  from  5  to  30  per  cent.  But  under  proper  brooding 
methods  it  should  be  possible  to  brood,  at  least  on  the  average, 
80  per  cent  of  vigorous  chicks.  These  are  good  results.  Frequently 
cases  of  95  per  cent  are  found.  Where  a  great  loss  occurs,  it  is 
usually  due  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  causes: 

Chilling. — If  the  hover  temperature  during  the  first  week 
or  two  drops  considerably  and  stays  low  for  any  length  of  time, 
especially  during  the  night  when  the  birds  are  under  the  hover, 
they  become  chilled,  their  body  heat  not  sufficing  to  maintain 
the  right  degree  of  temperature,  and  this  results  in  digestive  dis- 
orders and  a  subsequently  heavy  death  rate.  The  possibility  of 
this  occurrence  should  constantly  be  guarded  against. 

The  crowding  of  young  chicks  is  usually  because  they  are 
chilled,  but  it  may  be  caused  by  their  huddling  together  in  rays 
of  sunlight  on  the  brooder  floor,  or  by  putting  too  many  chicks 
in  one  brooder  compartment.  The  latter  is  due  to  inexperience, 
but  it  results  in  some  of  them  being  insufficiently  fed  and  get- 
ting insufficient  exercise.  The  direct  result  of  crowding  is  suffo- 
cation,— therefore  immediate  death, — while  the  indirect  result 
may  be  a  lack  of  vitality,  which  will  either  result  in  a  dwarf  chick 
or  cause  lingering  death. 

Overheating. — If  the  brooder  temperature  is  allowed  to  rise 
too  high,  the  chicks,  by  getting  accustomed  to  this  high  tern- 


364 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 


perature,  will  be  made  weak  and  thus  more  susceptible  to  any 
possible  variations  in  other  directions.  Owing  to  this  weakness 
they  have  a  desire  to  stay  under  the  brooder,  and  this  results  in 
a  loss  of  vitality  and  in  many  deaths. 

Cannibalism. — From  lack  of  sufficient  ash  in  the  ration  or 
insufficient  animal  protein,  chicks  often  acquire  the  habit  of 
devouring  one  another.  This  trouble  is  usually  started  by  the 
taste  of  blood  which  is  gotten  when  one  member  of  the  flock  be- 
comes injured  in  some  way,  and  the  others  pick  at  the  wound 
until,  in  many  cases,  the  entire  chick  is  devoured.  To  avoid  this 
any  chick  with  injured  parts  should  be  immediately  removed. 


FIG.  169. — Chicks  showing  pronounced  symptoms  of  white  diarrhoea. 

If  flocks  have  acquired  the  habit,  they  should  be  given  the  fol- 
lowing feed  mixture  in  pans  where  all  will  have  an  equal  chance 
to  get  at  it:  Equal  parts  of  meat  scrap,  dried  bone,  oyster  shell, 
and  wheat  bran.  The  feeding  of  this  ration  and  the  removal  of 
any  injured  chick  should  check  the  trouble. 

Contagious  White  Diarrhoea. — This  is  undoubtedly  the  great- 
est scourge  of  the  poultryman,  being  in  large  measure  beyond 
his  control  and  not  directly  due  to  mismanagement.  There  is  no 
positive  cure  known.  This  disease  is  called  bacteria  polorum,  is 
highly  infectious,  and  is  known  to  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring 
by  infected  parents,  the  infection  passing  through  the  egg,  the 
most  critical  infection  period  being  the  first  four  days  of  the 
chick's  life.  The  symptoms  are  a  lack  of  vitality,  small  stunted 
body  and  drooping  wings,  and  a  narrow  contracted  appearance 
viewed  from  behind  (Fig.  169).  When  a  flock  is  known  to  be 


SYSTEMS  OF  HEATING  BROODER  HOUSES  335 

infected,  the  best  possible  procedure  is  to  isolate  and  slaughter 
the  infected  adults  and  thus  prevent  future  outbreaks.  Thorough 
disinfection  of  brooders  and  incubators  will  prevent  the  trans- 
mission of  infection  through  future  hatches.  The  organisms  are 
easily  destroyed  by  dilute  acids;  hence  the  feeding  of  sour  milk 
to  infected  flocks  for  the  first  few  days  is  advisable.  Every 
poultryman  hatching  chicks  should  make  all  possible  effort  to  un- 
derstand and  prevent  this  disease,  since  it  causes  much  loss. 

Hardening  Process. — In  order  to  prepare  the  chicks  for  re- 
moval to  the  range,  after  the  second  week,  a  hardening  process 
should  be  begun.  This  consists  in  the  gradual  lowering  of  the 
temperature,  with  the  idea  of  dispensing  entirely  with  artificial 
heat  in  from  three  to  six  weeks,  according  to  the  weather.  The 
best  method  is  gradually  to  reduce  the  artificial  heat  until  it  can 
be  entirely  given  up,  then  raise  the  hover  a  little  at  a  time  until 
it  is  safe  to  remove  it  and  replace  it  with  muslin-covered  frames 
hung  to  the  hover  wall;  these  can  be  raised  in  front  a  little  more 
each  night  until  the  chicks  can  do  without  them.  It  is  imprac- 
ticable to  take  chicks  from  a  warm  brooder  house  and  put  them 
in  a  colony  house  unless  they  are  gradually  accustomed  to  the 
change.  The  idea  should  be  to  get  them  on  the  range  as  early 
as  possible.  After  they  are  four  weeks  old,  the  sooner  they  are 
out  on  the  ground  in  a  cool  atmosphere,  and  have  large,  well- 
ventilated  quarters  with  free  range  and  plenty  of  green  feed, 
the  faster  they  will  grow,  and  the  more  hardy  and  vigorous  they 
will  be  at  maturity. 

Systems  of  Heating  Brooder  Houses. — There  are  two  general 
systems  of  heating  large  brooder  houses, — namely,  hot  water  and 
steam.  Hot  water  is  the  more  generally  used.  It  maintains  a 
more  uniform  temperature  with  less  variation  either  way,  and 
the  heat  is  retained  much  longer  than  by  steam.  The  brooder 
house  is  a  compact  building  requiring  no  complicated  system  of 
piping  which  would  make  steam  necessary. 

The  Heating  Plant. — In  a  long  brooder  house  the  boiler 
should  be  centrally  located.  It  is  poor  policy  to  run  the  brooder 
pipes  more  than  one  hundred  feet,  as  the  loss  of  heat  is  great, 
the  pipes  become  cool,  and  it  is  impossible  to  maintain  an  even 
temperature  in  all  the  hovers.  With  the  hot-water  system  the 
heater  should  be  located  in  a  pit,  in  order  to  provide  for  the  cir- 
culation and  return  of  the  cold  water.  Whatever  type  be  selected, 
the  heating  plant  should  be  installed  by  an  expert.  He  must 


366  ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

understand  the  fixtures,  the  size  of  the  pipes,  and  the  running  of 
the  boiler  to  secure  the  required  degree  of  heat  in  a  given  type  of 
building.  The  construction  of  the  building  and  the  amount  of 
glass  or  muslin  in  front  will  influence  the  amount  of  heat  re- 
quired. In  a  brooder  house  one  hundred  feet  long  the  best  plan 
is  to  run  two  coils  of  two-inch  pipe  one  on  the  back  wall  and  one 
on  the  front,  each  coil  containing  two  flow  pipes  and  one  return,  in 
addition  to  the  hover  heat.  In  most  conditions  this  should  maintain 
a  steady  temperature  of  'from  60°  to  75°  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 
In  a  brooder  house  in  which  the  hovers  are  heated  from  a  central 
heating  plant,  so  much  wall  pipe  may  not  be  necessary,  since  con- 
siderable heat  will  be  given  off  by  the  hover  pipes  themselves. 

Before  starting  up  the  fire  at  the  beginning  of  the  brooding 
season,  one  should  make  sure  that  the  system  is  full  of  water; 
if  so,  there  will  be  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  glass  in  the  expansion 
tank.  If  the  air  valves  are  not  automatic,  all  of  them  should  be 
left  open  when  water  is  flowing  into  the  tank,  so  that  the  air 
may  escape  from  the  pipes  and  permit  them  to  fill  with  water. 
Neglect  of  this  precaution,  and  starting  the  fire  with  too  little 
water  in  the  system,  may  burst  the  boiler. 

A  good  practice  is  to  start  the  fire  and  get  it  well  under  way 
before  putting  any  coal  on  it.  The  use  of  coal  is  recommended, 
since  it  burns  longer,  gives  a  more  uniform  heat,  and  does  not 
require  much  attention.  To  make  the  fire  burn  briskly,  the  pipe 
^damper  should  be  open  and  the  upper  door  closed.  When  the 
fire  is  well  started  and  there  is  a  good  bed  of  coals,  and  the  water 
has  reached  the  desired  temperature,  check  the  fire  by  closing 
the  pipe  damper  and  the  damper  in  the  ash-pit  door,  and  leave 
the  upper  door  ajar — how  much  ajar  can  only  be  learned  by 
practice.  This  depends  on  the  type  of  boiler,  the  varying  amounts 
of  water  in  the  system,  and  will  also  be  influenced  by  weather, 
wind,  and  rain.  Never  let  the. water  in  a  hot- water  system  reach 
a  temperature  of  212°,  for  steam  will  then  be  formed,  the  water 
in  the  system  will  be  greatly  reduced,  and  there  is  danger  of  its 
boiling  away  and  leaving  the  boiler  dry.  When  it  approaches 
this  degree  of  temperature,  the  water  should  immediately  be  cooled 
by  banking  the  fire  and  cutting  off  all  drafts.  If  steam  should 
form  in  the  coils,  some  of  it  must  be  allowed  to  escape  by  opening 
the  air  valves,  then  let  fresh  water  into  the  system  gradually. 
It  is  best  to  have  automatic  valves.  All  ashes  should  be  removed 
from  the  ash  pit  daily,  for  if  they  are  allowed  to  remain  they  will 


REVIEW  367 

burn  out  the  grate  bars,  as  well  as  stop  the  drafts.  The  glass 
gauge  should  be  examined  frequently  to  ascertain  whether  there 
is  plenty  of  water  in  the  system.  A  desirable  feature  is  a  float 
valve  on  the  expansion  tank  which  will  permit  the  automatic 
inflow  of  water  when  needed. 

A  thermometer  connected  with  the  heater  to  register  the 
temperature  of  the  water  is  very  desirable,  but,  if  one  of  these 
instruments  is  installed,  it  should  be  of  reliable  make,  as  a  good 
deal  of  dependence  is  put  upon  it.  All  pipes  in  the  brooder  house 
which  are  not  actually  needed  for  direct  radiation  of  heat  should 
be  covered  with  asbestos  to  conserve  the  heat,  and  all  pipes  used 
directly  for  heating  should  receive  a  good  coat  of  paint  to  prevent 
rust. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Describe  two  distinct  systems  in  artificial  brooding. 

2.  What  three  factors  will  aid  in  determining  which  type  to  select? 

3.  Discuss  types  and  possibilities  of  the  long  brooder-house  system. 

4.  Describe  three  types  of  colony  brooders. 

5.  Discuss  the  possibilities  of  the  "gasoline  brooder  house." 

6.  What  are  the  four  requirements  of  a  successful  brooder? 

7.  How  would  you  prepare  a  brooder  for  young  chicks? 

8.  How  can  the  chilling  of  the  chicks  in  transferring  them  be  prevented? 

9.  Discuss  proper  brooder  temperatures  for  different  times. 

10.  Enumerate  twelve  principles  of  baby-chick  feeding. 

11.  Why  is  ash  so  important? 

12.  What  is  the  reason  for  not  feeding  soon  after  hatching? 

13.  Outline  a  desirable  method  of  feeding  baby  chicks  for  the  first  six  weeks; 

give  rations. 

14.  Give  five  common  causes  of  death  of  young  chicks. 

15.  Discuss  prevention  against  the  white  diarrhoea  disease. 

16.  What  are  the  dangers  at  the  time  the  heat  is  removed? 

17.  What  points  are  of  special  importance  in  locating  and  installing  a  heating 

plant  for  a  long  brooder  house? 

References. — The  Principles  of  Brooding,  by  Rice  and  Rogers,  Cornell 
Bulletin  277.  A  Successful  Brooder  House,  by  F.  H.  Stoneburn,  Connecticut 
Bulletin  33.  Raising  Chickens,  by  James  E.  Rice,  Cornell  Reading  Course 
Bulletin  19.  Raising  Chicks  Artificially,  by  Horace  Atwood,  West  Virginia 
Bulletin  98.  Feeding  Experiments  with  Chickens,  by  J.  Williard  Bolte,  Rhode 
Island  Bulletin  126.  Seven  Methods  of  Feeding  Young  Chickens,  by  Rice 
and  Nixon,  Cornell  Bulletin  282.  The  Mortality  of  Incubator  Chicks,  by 
G.  W.  Fields,  Rhode  Island  Bulletin  61.  Hatching  and  Rearing  Chickens,' 
by  W.  R.  Graham,  Ontario  Bulletin  163.  Skim  Milk  for  Growing  Chicks, 
by  Plum  and  Anderson,  Indiana  Bulletin  76.  The  Baby  Chick,  by  T.  E. 
Quisenberry,  Missouri  Poultry  Station  Bulletin  1.  Working  Plans  of  N.  Y. 
State  Brooder  House,  Cornell  Circular  4. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
CARE  OF  THE  GROWING  STOCK. 

THE  direct  object  in  the  feeding  and  care  of  all  chicks,  from 
hatching  time  to  maturity,  is  growth.  Uniform  development  is 
necessary  for  the  laying  birds  or  breeders.  When  meat  produc- 
tion is  the  object,  a  rapid  gain  in  flesh  is  desired  to  bring  about 
a  maximum  profit  in  the  least  time.  The  discussions  in  this 
chapter  will  deal  with  the  growing  chick  from  weaning  time  to 
maturity. 

Weaning  the  Chicks. — The  best  time  to  wean  the  chicks, 
whether  it  be  from  the  mother  hen  or  the  brooder,  will  depend 
on  the  breed,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  location  of  the  .colony 
houses,  and  the  degree  of  protection  which  can  be  afforded  them. 

Leghorns  and  other  light,  active  breeds  are  very  susceptible 
to  sudden  changes  early  in  their  development.  This  is  due  to 
the  strain  on  the  system  by  excessive  feather  growth.  Greater 
care  must  be  used  when  changing  them.  They  crowd  badly  if 
the  temperature  is  too  low;  a  heavy  mortality  follows.  In  the 
cold  weather  of  early  spring  the  weaning  period  must  be  post- 
poned until  the  chicks  attain  a  greater  age  than  would  be  required 
if  they  were  hatched  later  in  the  spring  and  were  transferred 
during  warmer  weather.  It  is  very  undesirable  to  wean  the  chicks 
during  damp  weather. 

The  colony  nouses  should  be  located  in  protected  spots,  espe- 
cially early  in  the  season,  and  near  to  the  poultryman's  residence. 
For  the  first  few  weeks  after  weaning,  the  chicks  require  quite 
close  watching,  as  they  have  to  be  protected  from  sudden  showers 
and  extreme  changes  in  weather  conditions.  The  coops  often 
require  special  manipulation  during  cool  spells  in  late  spring.  If 
it  is  possible  to  arrange  a  portable  hover  in  the  centre  of  the 
colony  house  the  chicks  can  be  weaned  much  earlier.  Such  a 
hover  may  be  made  two  feet  square  with  felt  or  canvas  curtains 
tacked  to  the  edges  of  the  board.  Suspend  this  from  the  roof 
with  cord  and  pulley,  leaving  it  at  first  about  ten  inches  from  the 
floor.  As  the  chicks  develop  and  become  accustomed  to  the 
changed  conditions,  the  hover  can  be  gradually  raised,  depending 
upon  weather  conditions,  until  they  finally  require  it  no  longer. 
368 


ENVIRONMENTAL  CONDITIONS  369 

It  can  then  be  stored  away  for  use  another  year.  This  practice 
is  very  satisfactory  with  early-hatched  Leghorn  chicks. 

Factors  Affecting  Growth.— There  are  many  factors  affecting 
the  growth  and  development  of  chicks.  They  logically  fall  under 
one  of  these  heads:  (1)  Inherited  characteristics;  (2)  environ- 
mental conditions;  (3)  supply  of  feed.  The  last  two  might  be 
combined,  but  are  considered  separately  because  of  the  impor- 
tance of  feeding. 

Inherited  characteristics  determine  the  constitutional  make-up 
of  the  individual  at  birth.  The  effect  of  environment  is  constantly 
acting  and  controls  the  development  of  inherited  characteristics. 
The  pronounced  difference  in  apparent  size  and  strength  of  the 
chicks  at  hatching  time  is  largely  due  to  inheritance,  beyond  the 
control  of  the  poultryman.  The  difference  in  size  is  very  pro- 


FIG.   170. — Growing  poultry  on  free  range  is  the  most  satisfactory  method.    Gasoline-heated 
brooders  are  used  on  this  farm.     (Photo  by  Cornell  University.) 

nounced  in  every  hatch.  Chicks  of  the  same  breed  vary  greatly 
in  size  and  weight  at  hatching  time,  and  will  not  develop  uni- 
formly, some  feathering  early  and  others  late.  Some  remain 
dwarfed  and  never  make  a  satisfactory  development.  Every 
poultry  raiser  should  practise  a  rigid  selection  from  hatching 
time  to  maturity,  weeding  out  those  lacking  inherited  vigor  and 
strength.  Experiments  show  that  such  chicks  never  make  profit- 
able layers,  sure  breeders,  or  desirable  market  poultry,  and  the 
sooner  they  can  be  disposed  of  the  better.  The  best  practice  is 
to  select  at  weaning  time  all  that  are  strong  and  vigorous, 
placing  them  on  the  range  in  the  developing  houses.  Take  all 
that  are  left  and  place  them  in  suitable  quarters,  with  restricted 
range,  if  necessary,  and  force  them  for  broiler  purposes.  They 
may  not  make  the  best  broilers,  yet  it  is  the  most  profitable  use 
24 


370 


CARE  OF  THE  GROWING  STOCK 


to  which  they  can  be  put.     If  they  are  kept  for  a  longer  time, 
they  eat  a  large  amount  of  feed  for  which  no  return  is  realized. 

Select  the  physically  strong  chicks,  and  maintain  their  high 
vitality  throughout  the  growing  period.  They  are  to  be  matured 
into  profitable  layers  and  breeders  at  the  end  of  the  summer. 


FIG.  171. — Rearing  chicks  under  intensive  conditions  on  open  range.  A,  Corn  is  useful 
to  provide  shade  while  the  trees  are  small.  B,  An  orchard  of  large  trees  su'pplies  plenty  of 
shade.  The  birds  check  the  ravages  of  insects. 

The  maintenance  of  their  vigor  is  essentially  within  the  control 
of  the  poultryman. 

Environmental  conditions  can  be  conveniently  grouped  for  dis- 
cussion under  five  heads:  (1)  Free  range;  (2)  green  feed;  (3) 
shade;  (4)  housing;  (5)  management. 

Free  Range. — The  best  growth  and  the  most  vigorous  chicks 
can  only  be  realized  by  giving  the  growing  birds  an  abundance  of 
free  range  (Figs.  170  and  171).  Overcrowding,  both  as  to  area  of 


ENVIRONMENTAL  CONDITIONS  371 

land  and  housing  space,  will  cause  much  trouble  during  the  devel- 
oping period.  With  small  flocks  it  may  be  possible  to  rear  birds 
satisfactorily  on  limited  range  or  in  bare  yards,  but  this  is  the 
exception.  Such  a  plan  requires  more  time  and  expensive  methods 
of  feeding.  Many  large  farms  have  tried  limited  range  for  the 
growing  birds,  and  have  abandoned  the  practice.  Large  areas 
for  young  stock  are  preferred  even  if  close  confinement  is  prac- 
tised with  the  layers.  Abundance  of  range  room  not  only  means 
more  vigor,  but  it  also  aids  in  reducing  the  cost  of  feeding.  Much 
feed  can  be  obtained  from  worms  and  insects.  If  the  range  is 
properly  seeded  in  alfalfa  or  other  leguminous  crops,  the  grains 
fed  can  be  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  such  green 
feed  available. 

Green  feed  is  absolutely  essential  during  the  growing  period, 
and  can  most  economically  be  supplied  by  growing  it  on  the  range. 
Where  limited  range  is  attempted,  considerable  expense  must  be 
incurred  in  supplying  green  feed  from  an  outside  source  in  the 
form  of  cabbage,  grass  clippings,  or  sprouted  grains.  A  range 
which  can  be  kept  seeded  down  to  permanent  sod  is  the  best. 
When  birds  are  kept  in  such  numbers  as  to  destroy  the  grass, 
it  will  be  found  desirable  to  divide  the  range  and  practise  rota- 
tion. Raise  quick-growing  succulent  crops  and  allow  the  birds 
to  eat  them  directly,  first  from  one  yard,  then  from  another 
(Chapter  IX). 

The  crops  used  (Fig.  172)  should  be  planted  early,  the  wheat 
and  rye  being  seeded  as  soon  as  the  birds  leave  in  the  fall,  and  the 
peas  and  oats  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring.  The  corn  should 
be  seeded  so  that  it  will  be  about  one  foot  high  before  the  birds 
are  placed  on  the  range  in  the  spring.  With  this  rotation  the 
birds  are  provided  with  an  abundance  of  green  feed,  and  the 
corn  furnishes  plenty  of  shade.  Each  year  the  practice  should  be 
to  move  the  rotation  one  series  ahead,  to  bring  a  new  crop  on 
each  plat.  This  will  necessitate  moving  the  houses,  and  it  is 
better  to  place  them  in  the  wheat,  since  that  is  the  first  crop 
ready  for  feeding.  This  yearly  moving  also  does  away  with  the 
danger  of  disease  about  the  houses. 

An  abundance  of  shade  is  necessary  for  a  normal  healthy  devel- 
opment. The  most  desirable  shade  is  that  which  is  made  by  a 
growing  plant,  as  it  is  much  cooler  and  gives  off  considerable 
moisture  (Fig.  171).  The  best  practice  is  to  plant  the  range  in 
fruit  trees,  such  as  peaches,  plums,  or  apples.  An  old  apple  or 


372 


CARE  OF  THE  GROWING  STOCK 


peach  orchard  can  be  profitably  maintained  as  a  range  area  for 
the  shade  which  can  be  derived. 

When  no  trees  are  present,  or  while  the  trees  are  getting 
their  growth,  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  plant  such  crops  as 
corn,  sunflowers,  and,  if  there  are  fences,  flowering  beans  may  be 
grown.  A  good  plan  for  rotation  of  crops  is  shown  in  figure  172. 

Artificial  shelters  may  be  made  of  muslin  frames  or  branches 
of  trees  supported  a  few  feet  above  the  ground. 


a 

PLAT  7 

a 

PLATH 

a 

PLAT  m 

PLAT  IV 

a 

a 

Peajf  and  Oetts 

a 

Wheat  and  Rye 

a 

Corn 

Clover 

a 

a 

a 

a 

• 

FIG.  172. — A  desirable  rotation  of  crops  for  poultry  runs.     Each  year  it  is  moved  ahead 
one  plat,  the  houses  always  being  located  on  the  wheat  and  rye. 

Housing. — In  the  design  and  construction  of  range  or  summer 
developing  houses,  there  are  three  essential  features  to  consider, — 
namely,  portability,  fresh  air,  and  size. 

The  houses  should  be  moved  from  place  to  place  as  the  range 
is  changed.  They  may  be  used  during  the  winter  as  laying  houses 
for  small  flocks.  They  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  provide  an 
abundance  of  ventilation  and  fresh  air  to  the  growing  chicks 
(Fig.  173).  Crowded,  stuffy  quarters  will  weaken  the  vitality  of 
the  chicks.  When  providing  this  ventilation,  drafts  across  the 
roosts  must  be  avoided.  It  is  a  mistake  to  build  colony  houses 
too  small.  Such  a  house  is  hard  to  ventilate  properly,  and  the 
tendency  is  to  crowd  too  many  chicks  into  one  flock,  with  disas- 


ENVIRONMENTAL  CONDITIONS 


373 


trous  results.  About  fifty  chicks  is  a  large  enough  number  in  a 
single  colony  house.  In  some  sections  the  practice  is  to  place 
only  twenty-five  in  each  house.  The  capacity  will  depend  upon 
the  floor  space  and  fresh-air  feature.  A  house  6x8  feet,  if  prop- 
erly ventilated,  will  accommodate  fifty  growing  pullets  without 
any  trouble.  Colony  houses  are  usually  elevated  above  the  ground 
from  ten  to  twelve  inches  and  provided  with  a  wooden  floor. 


FIG.  17*3. — Four  types  of  summer  developing  houses.  A,  Fresh-air  house  so  constructed 
that  both  side  walls  hinge  and  open  upward,  allowing  an  unlimited  circulation  of  air;  B,  shed- 
roof  colony  house;  C,  a  wide-open  house;  D,  a  portable  summer  chick  shelter,  showing  a 
luxuriant  vegetation  furnishing  an  abundance  of  green  feed  and  shade. 


The  houses  should  be  located  at  frequent  intervals  about 
the  range  (Fig.  170),  care  being  taken  to  place  them  on  high 
spots  that  are  not  damp  or  muddy  during  wet  weather.  If  they 
are  some  distance  apart,  there  will  be  less  possibility  of  the  birds 
mixing.  One  hundred  feet  will  provide  ample  range,  and,  if  the 
birds  are  confined  for  two  or  three  days  when  first  placed  on  the 
range,  there  will  be  little  mixing  in  their  houses.  Roosts  should  not 
be  placed  in  the  colony  houses  until  the  birds  are  at  least  four 


374  CARE  OF  THE  GROWING  STOCK 

months  old.  If  allowed  to  roost  too  early,  crooked  or  twisted 
breast-bones  will  be  the  result.  The  floor  should  be  covered  with 
a  good  dry  litter  of  an  absorbent  nature.  The  litter  should  be 
cleaned  out  at  least  once  a  month,  or  oftener  if  the  droppings 
show  signs  of  remaining  moist. 

Management. — The  plan  should  be  to  take  the  chicks  directly 
from  the  brooder  house  to  their  permanent  developing  houses. 
Frequent  changing  and  transferring  is  undesirable,  as  it  keeps  the 
birds  unsettled  and  they  will  not  grow  properly.  In  feeding 
and  caring  for  them  disturb  them  as  little  as  possible. 

As  soon  as  sex  can  be  distinguished  readily,  the  time  varying 
with  different  breeds,  the  males  should  be  separated  and  placed 
on  another  range.  If  they  are  allowed  to  remain  in  a  mixed  flock, 
neither  sex  will  develop  to  the  size  and  vigor  at  maturity  which 
they  would  attain  if  separated.  Thereafter  the  management  of 
the  two  sexes  is  entirely  different.  The  pullets  should  develop  to 
normal  size  so  that  they  will  be  in  good  laying  condition  at  the 
proper  time  in  the  fall.  The  males  should  be  in  market  condition 
at  as  early  an  age  as  possible.  The  males  to  be  matured  as  breed- 
ers should  be  selected  and  given  separate  range,  while  those  for 
broiling  or  roasting  should  be  more  closely  confined. 

Supply  of  Feed. — In  feeding  the  growing  chicks,  provide 
them  with  an  abundance  of  feed  of  the  right  composition,  and 
supply  this  in  such  a  way  as  to  reduce  the  labor  to  the  lowest 
point  and  yet  be  consistent  with  best  results.  This  can  be  done 
by  using  dry-mash  supplemented  by  cracked  grains.  The  dry- 
mash  should  be  fed  in  large,  outdoor,  self-feeding  hoppers,  which 
are  made  waterproof. .  It  is  also  possible  to  feed  a  part  of  the 
cracked  grain  in  hoppers,  but  at  least  one  feeding  a  day  should  be 
made  by  an  attendant  going  around  from  house  to  house  and 
scattering  it.  This  provides  a  certain  amount  of  personal  atten- 
tion which  is  necessary  for  best  results.  In  the  case  of  growing 
stock  this  personal  attention  can  be  cut  down  more  than  in  any 
other  line  of  the  poultry  work,  but  should  never  be  entirely 
eliminated. 

In  handling  the  growing  stock  induce  continuous  growth  from 
the  time  the  birds  are  put  on  the  range  until  they  are  placed  in 
winter  quarters.  A  check  in  growth,  due  to  improper  housing  or 
feeding  conditions,  may  retard  the  ultimate  development  many 
weeks,  resulting  in  smaller  fowls  with  low  vitality.  It  is  very 
important  in  caring  for  pullets  to  bring  them  to  maturity  at  the 


REVIEW  375 

right  time  in  the  fall.     If  growth  is  retarded,  their  development 
is  slow,  and  they  will  be  unprofitable  as  winter  egg  producers. 

Rations. — The  following  dry-mash  is  good  for  feeding  grow- 
ing stock,  from  twelve  weeks  of  age  to  maturity.  This  is  to  be 
kept  constantly  before  the  birds  in  self-feeding  hoppers. 

Wheat  bran 100  Ibs. 

Ground  oats 50  Ibs. 

Corn  meal 50  Ibs. 

Alfalfa  meal 10  Ibs. 

Meat  scrap 20  Ibs. 

Total 230  Ibs. 

The  composition  of  the  dry-mash  must  be  varied  somewhat 
according  to  the  character  of  the  range, 

A  grain  ration  should  be  fed  twice  daily  or  kept  before  the 
birds  in  grain  hoppers.  This  may  consist  of  cracked  corn,  100 
Ibs.,  and  wheat,  200  Ibs. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Discuss  effect  of  varying  weather  conditions  upon  chicks  at  weaning  time. 

2.  Discuss  inherited  characteristics  and  their  effect  upon  the  growth  of  the 

chicks. 

3.  Name  five  environmental  conditions  which  affect  the  chicks'  growth. 

4.  Of  what  use  is  free  range  to  growing  stock? 

5.  Will  chicks  grow  well  without  green  feed?    How  is  it  supplied? 

6.  What  is  the  most  desirable  shade  for  poultry? 

7.  Give  three  desirable  features  in  summer  colony  houses. 

8.  Describe  an  efficient  colony  house. 

9.  Give  special  points  in  the  management  of  growing  stock. 

10.  How  does  the  feeding  of  growing  stock  differ  from  the  feeding  of  laying 

stock? 

11.  Tell  of  the  harm  of  allowing  a  check  in  growth  of  the  young  stock. 

12.  Give  a  complete  ration  for  feeding  the  growing  stock. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS. 

THE  production  of  poultry  for  meat  offers  to  the  small  poul- 
tryman,  the  intensive  poultry  keeper,  and  the  farmer  alike  a 
possible  source  of  considerable  revenue  at  slight  expense.  It 
offers  exceptional  opportunities  on  the  farm,  for  there  range  is 
usually  abundant  and  cheap,  and  the  raising  of  broilers,  and 
especially  roasters,  can  be  well  combined  with  the  average  farm 
routine.  Again,  for  the  production  of  market  eggs  many  pullets 
are  hatched  each  year.  There  will  always  be  surplus  cockerels, 
which  if  properly  handled  and  marketed  will  yield  a  good  revenue. 
There  is  a  steady  demand  for  first-class  prime  dressed  and  live 
poultry  at  exceedingly  attractive  prices,  the  demand  being  more 
constant  than  with  other  types  of  meat.  The  various  kinds  of 
dressed  poultry  have  their  seasons  and  corresponding  fluctuations 
in  price.  It  becomes  the  problem  of  the  poultryman,  if  he  counts 
on  any  income  from  this  source,  to  study  seasons  and  markets 
and  adjust  his  stock  to  meet  these  requirements. 

Types  of  Market  Poultry. — Commercially,  market  poultry  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  classifications,  which  are  recognized 
by  all  commission  houses,  retail  jobbers,  and  the  trade.  Prices 
are  quoted  regularly  on  the  basis  of  this  classification:  Fowls, 
broilers,  fryers,  roasters,  capons. 

Fowls. — In  the  markets  the  term  "  fowl  "  means  all  female 
birds  one  year  old  or  over  (Fig.  174).  The  great  majority  of  these 
are  usually  sold  in  the  summer  and  fall  when  they  have  finished 
their  second  or  third  year  of  laying,  and  are  then  disposed  of  to 
make  room  for  incoming  pullets.  Such  fowls  bring  the  lowest 
price  in  the  market,  with  the  one  exception  of  roosters,  or  old 
male  birds,  for  which  there  is  little  demand,  owing  to  inferior 
quality.  A  large  number  of  fowls  are  sold  alive,  and  shipped  by 
carloads  to  heavy  consuming  centres.  In  the  East  a  leading 
factor  in  the  control  of  the  live-poultry  market  is  the  heavy  de- 
mand during  the  Jewish  holidays  which  come  in  the  fall  of  the 
year.  Variation  in  the  selling  price  of  fowls  throughout  the  year 
is  very  slight, — less,  in  fact,  than  of  any  other  market  type. 

Plump,  moderately  fat  fowls  are  in  the  greatest  demand,  thin 
376 


BROILER  RAISING  377 

or  excessively  fat  birds  being  undesirable.  A  large  mass  of  solid 
fat  protruding  from  the  lower  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen 
makes  the  bird  unsuitable  for  the  best  trade. 

Broiler  raising  is  one  of  the  greatest  specialties  of  the  poultry 
industry.  Its  conception  and  development  as  an  exclusive  busi- 
ness was  first  attempted  in  the  year  1885.  It  was  at  first  carried 
on  as  a  side  issue  to  general  farming,  especially  fruit  growing  and 
market  gardening.  The  prevailing  high  prices  for  rapidly  grown 
young  chicks  during  winter  and  spring,  combined  with  the  intro- 
duction of  improved  methods  in  artificial  incubation  and  brooding, 
were  largely  responsible  for  this  development  and  rapidly  increas- 


FIG.   174. — A  flock  of  fowls  ready  for  market. 

ing  popularity.  Great  numbers  of  people  went  into  the  business; 
a  few  succeeded  where  many  failed.  As  with  everything  else 
which  starts  with  a  boom,  a  reaction  followed. 

At  the  present  time  the  poultryman  has  come  to  realize  that 
the  most  profitable,  and  really  most  suitable,  place  for  the  rais- 
ing of  market  broilers  is  a  general  poultry  farm,  where  the  time 
given  to  their  production  can  be  regulated  by  the  market  price 
and  the  labor  required.  A  few  of  these  large  and  exclusive  broiler 
plants  are  in  existence  to-day  and  paying  good  dividends.  The 
country  is  dotted  here  and  there  with  traces  of  the  boom  when  it 
was  at  its  height.  The  amount  of  money  sunk  in  this  one  line  of 
poultry  work,  largely  because  of  inexperience  and  lack  of  capital 
of  the  investors,  is  enormous. 

The  great  bulk  of  broilers  which  reach  the  larger  markets 
come  from  general  farms  and  egg  farms,  and  are  shipped  to  the 
markets  in  the  late  spring  and  early  summer.  They  are  not  pro- 
duced as  a  main  source  of  revenue,  but  are  a  by-product,  as  it 


378  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

were,  from  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  pullets  for  laying.  It  is 
this  sudden  influx  of  the  general  supply  which  brings  the  price 
down  and  makes  it  unprofitable  for  the  specialists  to  produce  for 
a  yearly  market.  The  specialist  or  the  general  poultry  farmer 
who  wishes  to  cater  to  the  seasonable  broiler  trade  must  send  his 
birds  to  market  from  January  to  May  in  order  to  get  a  price  which 
will  pay  him  for  his  trouble.  This  is  why  broiler  raising  can  be  so 
well  carried  on  with  general  poultry  farming.  It  utilizes  a  part  of 
the  equipment  and  the  labor  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  there  is 
least  to  do.  The  growing  of  broilers  as  a  side  line  to  egg  farming, 
or  as  a  special  branch  of  general  poultry  farming,  is  well  worth 
the  time  and  attention  of  a  poultryman  who  has  the  necessary 
equipment  and  can  furnish  the  labor  at  the  proper  season. 

The  following  summary  of  the  broiler  industry  and  its  re- 
quirements sets  forth  the  essential  features  to  be  understood  and 
considered,  both  theoretically  and  practically,  before  launching 
out  in  the  business,  either  exclusively  or  as  a  side  line.  The 
production  of  a  few  broilers  each  year  in  connection  with  egg 
farming  is  the  best  and,  practically,  the  only  method  of  safely 
learning  the  "  ins  and  outs  "  of  broiler  raising. 

To  be  successful,  the  poultryman  must  consider  the  following 
points:  (1)  What  a  broiler  really  is;  (2)  market  types  of  broilers; 
(3)  broiler  seasons  and  the  effect  of  natural  supply;  (4)  desirable 
features  in  a  broiler;  (5)  breeds  best  adapted  to  broiler  raising; 
(6)  special  features  in  broiler  management;  (7)  prices,  cost,  and 
profits. 

A  broiler  is  a  young,  rapidly  grown  chicken,  which,  owing 
to  its  size  and  prime  flesh  condition,  is  in  general  demand  for 
broiling.  Before  starting  out  to  produce  anything,  the  producer 
must  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  desired  product  and  what 
purpose  it  is  to  serve,  for  this  will  enable  him  the  better  to  meet 
the  requirements  and  secure  the  best  quality. 

The  market  classifies  broilers  in  three  groups:  Large,  medium, 
and  small  or  squab  (Fig.  175). 

A  pair  of  large  broilers  should  weigh  from  three  to  four  pounds, 
or  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  each.  Large  broilers  are  also 
used  extensively  as  fryers,  and  are  in  great  demand  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  broiler  season,  bringing  at  this  time  as  much 
per  pound  as  small  broilers. 

Medium  broilers  should  weigh  from  one  to  one  and  one-half 
pounds  each,  or  from  two  to  three  pounds  to  the  pair.  The  me- 


BROILER  RAISING  379 

dium  broiler  is  very  popular,  and  brings  the  highest  price  during 
the  broiler  season  proper,  but  after  that  time  brings  no  more  per 
pound  than  the  large  broiler,  or  even  the  larger  frying  chicken. 

Small  or  squab  broilers  weigh  from  three-quarters  to  one 
pound  each,  or  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  to  the  pair. 
This  grade  of  broiler  is  the  most  expensive  for  the  consumer,  and 
is  used  only  at  high-class  luncheons  and  dinners,  or  in  high-class 
hotel  and  restaurant  trade;  consequently  it  is  in  much  less  demand. 

The  true  squab  broiler  should  be  considered  rather  as  an  in- 
cidental in  the  broiler  industry,  while  the  medium  broiler  con- 
stitutes the  leading  type,  from  the  standpoint  of  both  demand 
and  supply,  during  the  season  of  high  prices. 

The  commission  merchant  handles  during  the  season  the  great 
mass  of  broilers,  the  large  buyers  of  this  grade  of  meat  being 


B 


FIG.   175. — Market  types  of  broilers.     A,  Large;  B,  medium;  C,  small  or  squab. 

first-class  hotels,  restaurants,  and  well-to-do  families.  It  is  custom- 
ary in  serving  to  give  half  of  a  large  broiler,  or  the  entire  bird 
of  the  small  or  squab  grade,  to  each  person,  this  dish  usually 
forming  but  one  course  of  the  meal.  The  medium  broilers  are 
served  either  whole  or  in  half,  according  to  the  place  which  they 
occupy  in  the  meal.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  when 
prices  drop  and  large  broilers  come  into  market,  the  demand  is 
much  greater.  Because  of  lower  prices,  persons  of  small  means 
can  afford  them.  The  demand  then  is  for  larger  broilers,  which 
can  be  served  so  as  to  constitute  the  only  meat  course. 

The  broiler  seasons  are  determined  largely  by  the  demand  and 
supply  (Fig.  176).  There  is  comparatively  little  demand  for  broil- 
ers until  November,  owing  largely  to  the  fact  that  during  the  sum- 
mer there  are  fewer  functions  or  dinners  requiring  them.  Besides, 
most  of  the  well-to-do  families  are  away  for  the  summer,  and  the 
hotels  and  restaurants  which  constitute  over  eighty  per  cent  of 


380 


BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 


the  consumers  have  no  call  for  this  product.  The  demand  begins 
in  November  and  December,  continuing  and  increasing  until  the 
middle  of  February,  when  it  is  at  its  height.  From  this  time  until 
July,  the  demand  is  approximately  steady;  but,  after  the  last  of 
March,  there  is  a  constantly  increasing  supply,  which  keeps  the 
price  from  rising,  and  in  fact  makes  it  slowly  fall.  There  is  no 
great  decline  until  the  last  of  May,  when  the  price  drops  suddenly. 
This  is  largely  because  of  the  enormous  natural  and  seasonable 
supply  brought  to  market  as  a  surplus  product  from  the  hatching 
of  pullets.  The  profitable  season,  then,  for  specialized  broiler 


Sept 


Oof. 


ITavr 


Deo. 


I 


L 


2 


Feb. 


ffar 


April 


May  June  July 


\ 


FIG.  176. — Curves  showing  seasonal  variations  in  price  and  the  supply  of  broilers.    This 
shows  that  the  supplies  of  March,  April,  and  May  are  met  by  a  high  price. 

growing  is  in  the  months  of  December,  January,  February,  March, 
and  April,  with  its  "  high-water  mark  "  during  March.  The  chart 
(Fig.  176)  shows  the  curve  of  demand  and  price,  the  effect  of 
the  incoming  natural  supply,  and  the  correspondingly  increased 
demand  due  to  lower  price. 

Desirable  Features  in  a  Broiler— -To  fulfil  the  definition  of 
a  broiler,  hence  to  meet  market  requirements  and  the  demands 
of  the  trade,  a  chicken  should  come  up  to  the  following  standard : 
(1)  It  should  be  plump  all  over,  well  filled  out,  especially  breast 
and  thighs.  (2)  It  should  have  comparatively  small  bones, 
large  bones  giving  a  rangy  and  lanky  appearance  to  the  bird 
when  dressed.  (3)  It  should  be  meaty  everywhere;  want  of  flesh 


BROILER  RAISING  381 

not  only  makes  an  undersized  and  light  bird;  but  greatly  detracts 
from  the  general  appearance  of  the  fowl  when  dressed,  showing 
the  bony  framework  of  the  body.  (4)  Yellow  skin  and  yellow 
legs  are  preferred.  This  question  of  the  color  of  the  skin  is  merely 
a  market  demand,  but  it  is  very  pronounced.  Of  two  shipments, 
equal  in  every  respect,  one  with  white  or  dark  legs  and  the  other 
with  yellow,  the  latter  will  always  be  bought  first  at  higher  price. 
(5)  White  or  light-feathered  birds  are  best.  After  plucking, 
there  are  no  dark  pins  and  pits  to  detract  from  the  appearance; 
this  feature  is  less  important  than  those  previously  mentioned, 
yet  it  does  have  weight.  (6)  Broilers  should  have  been  hatched 
from  a  quick-maturing  strain  or  breed,  from  parents  which  were 
quickly  matured.  The  broilers  must  be  brought  to  maturity  as 
quickly  as  possible  to  economize  time,  to  secure  tenderness  and* 
texture  of  flesh,  and  to  reduce  the  cost  of  feeding  and  labor.  A 
broiler  which  has  developed  slowly,  and  taken  twice  the  usual 
time  to  attain  a  given  weight,  will  never  be  a  profitable  bird,  for 
the  margin  of  profit  is  small.  An  understanding  of  the  above 
requirements,  and  their  bearing  on  price  and  demand,  is  necessary 
in  order  that  the  possibilities  of  the  broiler  industry  may  be  fully 
realized. 

Breeds  Best  Adapted  to  Broiler  Raising. — As  a  rule,  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  American  or  general  utility  breeds  more  nearly 
fulfil  the  requirements  for  broiler  raising  than  any  other  class 
of  fowls;  this  is  especially  true  of  the  large  broiler.  The  Wyan- 
dottes,  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  Rhode  Island  Reds,  if  properly 
managed,  will  attain  a  quick  growth  in  twelve  to  fifteen  weeks, 
weighing  at  that  time  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  each, 
and  they  dress  well  and  are  always  in  demand.  The  White  Wyan- 
dottes  probably  offer  as  great  opportunities  for  this  class  of  broil- 
ers as  any  one  breed.  It  must  here  be  emphasized  that  it  is  not 
always  the  breed,  but  the  breeding  back  of  the  particular  strain, 
which  tells  the  story. 

In  the  hands  of  different  breeders,  various  breeds  may  be 
made  to  excel  one  another.  The  aim  should  be  to  select  a  good 
breed,  with  the  distinctive  characteristics  desired,  and  then  by 
breeding  attempt  to  intensify  those  characteristics,  at  the  same 
time  breeding  to  develop  early  maturity  and  vitality  (Fig.  177). 
For  the  squab  and  medium  broiler  trade,  it  is  possible  to  turn  out 
the  highest  quality  of  poultry  in  the  shortest  possible  time  and 
at  the  least  expense  by  using  White  Leghorns.  They  are  quick  to 


382  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

mature;  a  well-managed  flock  of  fifty  should  average  one  pound  at 
from  nine  to  ten  weeks  of  age.  They  have  a  bright  yellow  skin  and 
shanks,  their  meat  is  of  the  highest  quality  when  young,  and  they 
grow  very  quickly.  It  is  a  great  mistake  in  broiler  raising  to  use, 
either  by  crossing  or  direct  breeding,  any  of  the  slow-maturing, 
heavy  Asiatic  breeds.  It  is  true  they  will  attain  size,  but  they 
mature  so  very  slowly  that  they  are  unprofitable;  at  a  one-pound 
weight  they  are  bony,  and  have  a  long,  lean  appearance  when 
picked.  Pure-bred  birds  should  always  be  used  for  broilers,  since 
in  crossbreeding  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  characteristics  desired, 
and  the  progeny  are  neither  uniform  nor  reliable.  The  greatest 


FIG.   177. — Rhode   Island   Red  broilers  ready  for   market.      Uniformity  in   size  and  finish 

is  necessary. 

objection  to  crossing  is  the  resulting  variability  in  size  and  quality. 
This  is  an  important  consideration,  for  uniformity  adds  to  an 
attractive  appearance  and  usually  guarantees  a  high  price. 

Special  Features  in  Broiler  Management. — The  management  of 
broilers  is  similar  to  that  required  in  the  growing  of  young  chicks. 
The  chief  difference  is  that  the  best  season  comes  during  the 
winter,  a  time  of  year  when  a  complete  artificial  brooding  equip- 
ment is  necessary;  the  chicks  must  be  fed  for  rapid  growth,  and 
at  the  same  time  kept  healthy  and  vigorous.  The  features  for 
special  consideration  are:  (1)  Hatch  only  strictly  fresh  eggs  which 
come  from  well-mated,  vigorous  birds,  being  sure  that  the  eggs 
have  not  been  chilled.  (2)  Maintain  the  right  degree  of  hover 
temperature,  which  will  promote  continuous  growth.  Too  much 
heat  will  mean  slow  growth,  and  too  little  warmth  will  cause 
crowding  and  entirely  check  it.  (3)  Do  not  run  too  large  flocks, 
as  crowding  tends  to  exaggerate  inherited  inequalities  in  vigor 
and  growth,  the  smaller  ones  not  getting  a  chance.  Twenty-five 
to  thirty  in  a  pen  are  enough  for  the  best  results.  (4)  Continual 


BROILER  RAISING  383 

selection,  weeding  out  the  culls  and  deformed  chicks  at  as  early  an 
age  as  possible,  and  maintaining  flocks  of  uniform  size.  It  never 
pays  to  run  small  birds  with  a  flock  of  larger  ones.  (5)  The  in- 
ducing of  exercise  keeps  the  birds  in  excellent  health  as  well 
as  appetite.  The  more  the  birds  eat  the  greater  their  gain 
in  weight.  (6)  Systematic  feeding,  similar  to  that  recommended 
for  growing  chicks,  but  with  a  greater  percentage  of  flesh-forming 
materials,  bone  and  meat  scrap  and  abundance  of  green  feed  pro- 
mote growth  and  influence  the  color  of  the  flesh  by  producing  a 
yellowish  pigment.  (7)  In  finishing  broilers  there  is  rarely  a 
special  time  for  fattening,  the  custom  being  to  mature  the  chicks 
rapidly  throughout  the  entire  growth  period,  keeping  them  soft 
and  plump  and  ready  for  killing  all  the  time. 

Prices,  Cost,  and  Profits. — Before  attempting  to  raise  broilers, 
it  is  advisable  to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  the  probable  cost 
of  production,  of  selling  prices,  and  of  the  profits  under  average 
conditions.  In  broiler  raising  these  factors  are  variable,  and  the 
season  of  high  and  profitable  prices  is  short.  Generally  the  pos- 
sibility of  profits  makes  the  work  attractive,  yet  the  risks  are 
great.  The  cost  of  producing  broilers  varies  because  of  differences 
in  management,  differences  in  breeds,  unavoidable  losses,  and 
variations  in  the  season.  On  special  broiler  plants,  the  average 
cost  of  producing  a  broiler  weighing  from  one  to  one  and  a  half 
pounds,  including  price  of  eggs  and  labor,  is  approximately  twenty- 
five  to  twenty-six  cents.  It  may  be  possible  slightly  to  reduce 
this  figure,  but  not  materially.  Other  items  in  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion are  the  high  price  of  eggs  at  the  season  when  they  are  hatched 
for  winter  broilers,  the  loss  from  low  fertility,  and  the  small  per- 
centage of  hatches  compared  with  what  could  be  obtained  during 
the  natural  hatching  season. 

The  approximate  cost  is  given  here.  These  figures  are  for 
the  winter  season,  and  vary  considerably  during  this  period : 

Cost  of  chick  at  hatching,  including  egg  and  incubator $0.06 

Feed  cost  from  hatching  to  marketing 10 

Labor  cost,  not  including  picking  or  packing 03 

Expense  of  marketing,  including  picking,  express,  and  commission     .07 

Total 26 

It  is  probable  that  chicks  raised  under  natural  conditions 
during  the  spring  of  the  year  can  be  produced  for  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  above  total.  The  cost  will  depend  largely  upon 


384  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

the  condition  of  the  bird,  the  character  of  the  range,  and  whether 
it  furnishes  an  unlimited  amount  of  the  best  green  feed. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  average  farm  broiler  during  the 
natural  season  is  here  given: 

Cost  of  chick $0.035 

Cost  of  feed 06 

Cost  of  labor 02 

Cost  of  marketing 07 

Total 185 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  great  reduction  in  cost  is  due  to  the 
lower  price  of  the  eggs  and  the  cheaper  feed.  The  comparison 
shows  that  profit  during  the  winter  season  depends  upon  low  cost 
of  production  and  good  market  prices,  and  that  during  the  natural 
spring  season  the  profits  are  not  remarkable,  but  the  idea  is  to  dis- 
pose of  surplus  products  without  loss,  and  usually  with  a  slight  gain. 

There  are  certain  risks  which  even  the  broiler  grower  of  es- 
tablished reputation  and  experience  must  always  run,  and  these 
are  largely  beyond  his  control:  (1)  A  loss  from  poor  hatches  due 
to  low  fertility,  and  this  increases  the  cost  of  hatching  chicks. 
(2)  Loss  by  death,  which  may  be  due  to  poor  management  or 
carelessness,  or,  as  is  often  the  case,  to  white  diarrhoea,  or  some 
inherited  weakness  or  lack  of  vitality.  (3)  Losses  may  be  caused 
by  fluctuation  in  market  prices;  this  is  especially  true  if  the 
poultryman  has  started  rather  late  and  runs  his  season  too  late. 
The  usual  spring  drop  in  price  may  catch  him  with  a  considerable 
number  on  hand,  which  must  often  be  sold  below  cost. 

Market  prices,  however,  are  much  more  steady  during  the 
season  than  formerly,  and  it  is  now  possible  to  forecast  market 
conditions  far  ahead  of  the  time  for  shipment.  The  chief  cause 
of  many  disappointments  and  failures  in  the  specialized  broiler 
industry  lies  in  the  attractive  possibilities,— attractive  to  people 
of  limited  capital  and  still  less  experience, — a  combination  bound 
to  result  in  failure.  The  business  requires  a  considerable  fixed 
investment  of  capital  in  buildings  and  in  incubation  and  brooding 
equipment.  To  be  profitable  the  birds  must  be  marketed  in  prime 
condition.  A  few  days  earlier  or  later  than  the  proper  time  for 
marketing  means  either  increased  cost  for  feed  and  labor  if  they 
are  kept  too  long,  or  a  lower  price  if  marketed  too  early. 

A  disputed  question  on  the  large,  exclusive,  broiler  plant  is  the 
desirability  or  undesirability  of  the  broiler  raiser  producing  his 


ROASTERS  385 

own  eggs  for  hatching.  In  general  the  practice  is  not  to  produce 
them  at  all;  or,  if  any,  merely  a  part.  The  great  difficulty  is  the 
necessity  of  keeping  a  large  flock  to  produce  the  eggs  in  winter, 
and  it  would  require  considerable  time  and  attention  successfully 
to  solve  this  proposition.  It  is  becoming  the  custom  for  the 
broiler  grower  to  make  contracts  with  the  larger  poultrymen  in 
the  vicinity  to  supply  him  with  eggs  at  the  season  desired.  He 
guarantees  to  take  a  certain  number,  and  to  pay  usually  from 
three  to  five  cents  a  dozen  more  than  the  market  price  for  selected 
eggs  in  good  hatching  condition.  In  order  to  secure  strong  vitality 
and  as  high  fertility  as  possible,  many  of  the  growers  agree  to 
furnish  the  male  birds  for  the  flocks,  and  by  purchasing  large, 
vigorous  males  of  other  breeding  the  value  of  the  eggs  for  their 
purpose  is  greatly  increased. 

It  is  poor  policy  to  gather  eggs  in  small  lots  from  the  country 
where  no  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  them  fit  for  hatching. 

Broiler  raising,  as  an  exclusive  and  distinct  poultry  industry, 
is  on  the  decline.  Poultrymen  are  coming  to  realize  the  possi- 
bilities offered  by  making  the  production  of  market  eggs  the  main 
issue,  and  are  devoting  only  so  much  time  to  the  raising  of  prime 
broilers  in  season  as  may  be  profitably  taken  from  other  work. 
This  change  in  economic  conditions  results  in  greater  profit  from 
the  broiler  produced,  in  more  persons  shipping  broilers,  and  in  a 
steadier  supply,  and  in  a  more  stable  selling  price. 

Fryers. — By  a  frying  chicken  is  meant  a  young,  rapidly  grown 
bird  a  few  weeks  older  than  a  large  broiler,  weighing  from  two  and 
one-half  to  three  and  one-half  pounds.  There  is  little  demand  for 
birds  of  this  age  and  weight,  and  the  price  paid  is  so  low  that  it 
is  customary  either  to  dispose  of  them  when  at  the  large  broiler 
size,  or,  if  they  are  beyond  this  stage,  to  hold  them  for  soft  roasters 
at  four  pounds  and  above.  The  term  "  fryers  "  is  not  distinctive, 
for  chicks  at  all  ages  are  used  for  frying,  especially  large  broilers. 

Roasters. — The  growing  of  prime  roasters  as  an  industry  is 
centralized  in  two  well-defined  sections  in  the  East,  namely,  along 
the  south  shore  of  Massachusetts  and  in  south-central  New 
Jersey.  In  these  two  sections  much  time  and  attention  are  de- 
voted to  this  as  an  exclusive  industry,  but  often  as  a  side  issue  in 
general  farming.  In  Massachusetts  the  industry  is  carried  on 
more  exclusively,  while  in  New  Jersey  the  great  majority  of 
farmers  plan  to  raise  and  finish  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred 
and,  in  some  cases,  over  one  thousand  roasters.  Roaster  grow- 
25 


386  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

ing  is  undoubtedly  more  profitable  when  carried  on  as  a  side  line 
to  some  branch  of  agriculture,  for  its  season  is  short,  and  the 
amount  of  labor  required  from  hatching  time  to  finishing  is  small. 
The  returns  are  very  satisfactory,  but  the  cost  of  producing 
varies  greatly,  this  depending  upon  the  amount  and  kind  of  range 
for  grazing.  There  are  two  great  advantages  which  the  roaster 
growers  of  the  New  Jersey  district  have, — namely,  large  fields 
for  range  after  grain  crops,  or  green  pasture  following  the  first 
cutting  of  hay.  These  areas  serve  admirably  for  supplying  plenty 
of  the  required  nutriment  at  so  little  expense  that  the  cost  of 
production  is  materially  reduced. 

Roaster  growing  on  an  exclusive  basis  may  call  for  the  in- 
vestment of  a  large  amount  of  capital  in  buildings  and  equipment, 
and  the  production  must  be  considerable  to  pay  an  interest  on 
the  investment.  Some  returns  are  coming  in  constantly,  yet  the 
heavy  demand  and  high  prices  are  in  the  first  two  summer  months, 
and  the  poultryman  must  plan  to  sell  much  of  his  product  at  that 
time.  Expenses  on  a  specialized  roaster  plant  are  almost  con- 
tinuous, and  they  must  be  met  by  a  short  period  of  heavy  income. 

One  disadvantage  of  the  industry  is  the  long  time  which  one 
has  to  carry  his  crop  before  it  is  marketed,  and  this  is  expensive. 
An  endeavor  has  been  made  to  combine  broiler  and  roaster  farm- 
ing, but  with  little  success.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that, 
with  a  given  location  and  certain  conditions,  either  one  or  the  other 
will  be  found  to  be  the  more  profitable,  and  by  attempting  both 
the  poultryman  fails  to  make  as  much  out  of  either.  If  they  are 
combined,  he  must  carry  two  distinct  types  of  breeding  birds 
which  need  entirely  different  management,  hatching  must  take 
place  at  different  seasons,  and  there  must  be  an  altogether  dif- 
ferent method  of  finishing  and  marketing;  therefore  it  is  wise  to 
confine  one's  endeavors  to  one  branch  and  to  master  it. 

To  succeed  in  the  growing  of  prime  roasters,  a  poultryman 
must  become  familiar  with  the  following  general  factors:  (1) 
What  the  term  "  roaster  "  implies;  (2)  market  types  of  roasters; 
(3)  natural  seasons  of  demand  and  variation  in  price;  (4)  features 
of  a  desirable  roaster;  (5)  breeds  best  adapted  to  roaster  growing; 
(6)  special  points  in  management. 

What  the  Term  Roaster  Implies. — A  roaster  is  a  young,  quickly 
developed  but  fully  grown  bird,  with  tender  meat  of  fair  weight, 
and,  owing  to  its  large  size  and  good  quality  of  flesh,  in  prime 
condition  for  roasting. 


ROASTERS 


387 


In  roaster  growing  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  producer 
know  the  requirements,  and  the  difference  between  a  bird  in  prime 
condition  for  roasting  and  one  which  is  not,  for  they  vary  greatly 
according  to  breed  characteristics  and  management. 

Market  Types  of  Roaster. — Commercially,  roasters  are  classi- 
fied as  small  and  large.  The  greatest  demand  is  for  small  roasters 
weighing  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  to  the  pair,  or  four  to  five 
pounds  each.  Such  birds  suit  the  average  family  better  than 
larger  ones.  Large  roasters,  weighing  twelve  pounds  to  the  pair 
or  more,  are  in  considerable  demand,  especially  during  holiday 
seasons  (Fig.  178).  They  often  weigh  singly  as  much  a.s  the 


FIG.   17S. — Market   types   of    roasting    chickens.      A,  Large  roaster,  six  pounds;    B,  small 

roaster,  four  pounds. 

smaller  ones  will  average  per  pair.  The  production  of  these  large 
roasters  for  seasonable  markets  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 
branches  of  poultry  keeping,  especially  if  there  is  abundant  green 
grass  range.  The  demand  for  them  is  steadily  on  the  increase. 

Roaster  Seasons  and  Prices. — There  is  a  good  market  for  a 
prime  roaster  at  any  season  of  the  year,  but  the  problem  of  the 
specialist  is  how  to  bring  his  birds  to  maturity  at  the  time  of 
natural  shortage  and  correspondingly  higher  prices.  This  period 
is  from  the  first  of  June  to  the  middle  of  August;  it  constitutes 
the  shipping  season  of  the  south-shore  section  and  of  heavy  in- 
come. The  fall  of  the  year  is  the  natural  roaster  period.  The 
prices  then  are  slightly  lower,  due  to  the  large  supply  of  birds  from 
general  and  mixed  farms  shipped  to  market  at  about  this  time. 

Another   profitable   shipping   period   is   late   November  and 


388 


BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 


December,  or  during  the  holiday  season.  This  is  the  market  to 
which  the  great  mass  of  roaster  growers  attempt  to  cater, — that 
is,  those  who  carry  on  the  business  in  connection  with  some  other 
well-defined  branch  of  agriculture.  There  is  never  a  time  when 
the  supply  so  nearly  equals  the  demand  as  to  make  the  prices  drop 
low  enough  to  be  unprofitable.  There  have  been  periods  of  glut- 
ted markets,  but  only  for  an  extremely  short  time.  These  have 
been  due  to  heavy  shipments,  during  the  fall,  to  the  large  consum- 
ing centres  from  the  Central  West.  The  season's  prices  vary  con- 
siderably, due  almost  entirely  to  demand  and  supply.  The  chart 
shows  this  price  curve  (Fig.  179). 

Features  of  a  Desirable  Roaster. — In  general,  the  description 
of  a  prime  broiler  also  applies  to  a  roaster.  In  addition,  however, 
the  following  points  are  desirable  in  the  roaster:  Great  length  of 


1911 

Sept 

Oct. 

JVbvr 

Dec 

Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

April 

T^F 

June 

«7t/7jr 

4 

30 

30 

25 

/ 

•• 

"^V 

•i    — 

^^  ^> 

•x. 

25 

20 

^--- 

_^ 

' 

^^^ 

^. 

"N 

'  

•V 

^ 

15 

/5 

FIG.   179. — Curve  showing  seasonal  variations  in  market  prices  for  roasters, 
realized  during  winter  months. 


Highest  prices 


body  with  extremely  full  breast,  the  entire  carcass  to  be  full  and 
plump,  and  rounded  rather  than  angular.  Yellow  skin  and  shanks 
are  preferable  in  most  markets.  The  color  of  the  feathers  is  of  less 
consequence  in  roasters  than  in  broilers,  because  the  pin-feathers 
are  not  large  enough  to  be  evident.  Although  fully  matured,  the 
flesh  of  the  roaster  must  be  soft  and  tender,  with  plenty  of  fat 
and  little  connective  tissue  such  as  would  be  found  in  full-grown 
Leghorns. 

Breeds  Adapted  to  Roaster  Growing. — In  regard  to  maturity 
the  requirements  for  the  two  types  of  commercial  roasters  are 
wholly  different.  For  example,  the  small  roaster  is  marketed  at 
an  earlier  age  and  earlier  season,  consequently  he  must  be  matured 
earlier;  while  with  the  large,  full-grown  roaster,  which  was  slowly 
matured,  juicy  and  tender  flesh  is  demanded. 

For  small  roasters  the  general  utility  breeds,  especially  the 


ROASTERS  389 

Plymouth  Rocks,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Wyandottes,  are  very 
suitable.  The  Orpington  makes  good  flesh  growth,  but  the  color 
of  the  shanks  is  discounted  by  the  consumer.  This  type  of  fowl 
matures  rather  quickly  and  has  juicy  meat  at  maturity.  The 
early  maturity  reduces  the  period  of  feeding;  hence  each  pound  of 
flesh  is  produced  more  cheaply  than  would  be  possible  with  the 
larger  Asiatic  breeds.  These  breeds  do  not  attain  sufficient  size 
to  admit  of  their  being  finished  and  marketed  as  large  roasters. 
It  is  necessary,  then,  to  secure  a  bird  of  larger  growth  which  will 
have  very  tender  flesh  at  maturity. 

The  Asiatics  are  good  for  this  purpose,  the  best  being  the 
Brahma,  and  the  light  variety  being  generally  preferred.  With 
good  care  and  abundant  feed  they  will  slowly  grow  to  a  very 
great  size,  and  will  reach  maturity  in  time  for  the  fall  and  winter 
demand,  the  flesh  being  very  tender  when  killing  time  comes. 
They  will  also  finish  profitably,  as  they  are  naturally  of  a  quiet 
temperament  and  stand  close  confinement  well.  The  Light 
Brahma  and  some  fowls  of  the  American  class  are  sometimes 
crossed,  but  there  is  no  decided  advantage  in  doing  this. 

Special  Features  of  Roaster  Management. — Roaster  growing 
as  an  exclusive  business  requires  an  extensive  equipment  for  late 
fall  and  winter  hatches  and  suitable  houses  in  which  to  grow 
the  chicks  during  the  cold  winter  weather.  On  the  contrary, 
roaster  growing  for  the  fall  and  winter  trade  requires  only  the 
simplest  kind  of  pens  or  houses  for  developing  the  birds.  The 
size  and  style  of  the  hatching  equipment  depend  upon  the  number 
to  be  run  through,  which  is  usually  so  small  that  no  expensive 
outfit  is  necessary.  Extensive  range  and  the  keeping  of  the  birds 
in  flocks  of  not  over  one  hundred  are  customary.  The  best  and 
cheapest  method  is  to  give  them  free  range,  if  possible,  with  small 
developing  houses  scattered  at  short  distances  apart. 

Expensive  and  systematic  feeding  is  unnecessary  during  the 
growing  period,  if  the  birds  have  range  which  furnishes  an  abun- 
dance of  green  feed  and  insects.  Costly  feeding  comes  just  before 
the  time  of  marketing,  when  the  birds  should  be  closely  confined 
to  put  them  in  first-class  condition  by  forced  or  systematic  feed- 
ing. The  confinement  stops  their  continuous  exercise.  Ground 
grains  are  usually  sufficient  during  the  summer  feeding  period. 
If  we  wish  to  hasten  the  growth,  a  dry-mash  may  be  given.  Shade 
on  the  range  is  essential,  as  well  as  an  abundance  of  fresh  drinking 
water,  for  the  flesh  of  the  well-grown  roaster  requires  much  water. 


390  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

The  production  of  market  poultry,  especially  of  roasters, 
could  be  made  very  profitable  on  a  great  majority  of  the  general 
farms  which  now  carry  only  a  small  flock  for  home  consumption, 
the  labor  item  being  almost  infinitesimal,  except  during  the  finish- 
ing and  marketing  periods.  Under  these  conditions  the  cost  for 
feed  is  slight  and  the  extra  labor  required  comes  at  the  slack  time 
of  the  year.  The  general  farm  flock  produces  the  great  mass  of 
poultry  and  eggs.  Let  it  do  so  to  a  still  greater  extent,  and  mul- 
tiply the  income  of  the  farmer. 

Capons. — There  are  great  possibilities  in  the  more  extended 
practice  of  capon  production.  The  industry  is  in  its  infancy,  and 


FIG.   180. — A  flock  of  capons  five  months  old. 

each  year  sees  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  capons  produced. 
The  possibilities  must  be  clearly  understood.  The  poultryman 
should  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  operation  before 
attempting  the  practice  commercially.  The  art  of  caponizing  has 
been  understood  and  practised  for  many  years,  yet  its  possibilities 
are  just  becoming  understood  and  being  developed. 

A  capon  is  a  male  bird  from  which  the  reproductive  organs 
have  been  removed  at  an  early  age.  Emasculation  changes  the 
entire  physical  make-up  of  the  cockerel,  altering  his  shape  and 
the  appearance  of  his  plumage;  he  loses  his  masculine  character- 
istics and  gains  weight  very  rapidly  (Fig.  180). 

Advantages  of  Caponizing. — From  the  standpoint  of  produc- 
tion of  poultry  meat  of  high  flavor  and  quality,  caponizing  is  very 
desirable.  Its  advantages  are :  Larger  and  heavier  fowls  at  killing 


CAPONS  391 

time;  sweeter  meat  of  finer  flavor;  a  much  higher  selling  price;  a 
lower  cost,  due  to  ease  of  fattening;  a  more  docile  disposition  and 
better  endurance  of  close  confinement;  can  be  used  when  desired 
for  hovering  young  chicks. 

During  the  same  period  of  growth  it  is  possible  to  produce 
capons  which  will  weigh  one-half  more  than  they  would  normally 
weigh.  A  cockerel  of  the  American  breeds  at  eight  months  of  age 
will  weigh  from  four  to  five  pounds.  The  same  bird,  if  caponized 
when  about  twelve  weeks  old,  can  easily  be  made  to  weigh  from 
six  to  eight  pounds  at  eight  months,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
flesh  of  the  capon  will  be  more  tender,  of  finer  texture,  and  of 
superior  flavor.  True  capon  flesh  is  much  sweeter  than  that  from 
the  cockerel  of  the  same  age.  The  term  "  Philadelphia  capon  " 
is  familiar  to  everybody  connected  with  the  industry,  or  who 
appreciates  excellent  quality  in  chicken  flesh.  At  marketing 
time,  or  eight  months  of  age,  the  capon  will  command  on  the 
market  from  twenty-two  to  thirty  cents  a  pound,  according  to 
the  season,  while  the  cockerel  would  bring  only  from  thirteen  to 
twenty-five  cents.  These  differences  vary  considerably  through- 
out the  year,  the  highest  capon  prices  being  during  the  holidays. 
The  cost  of  feeding  the  capon  during  the  eight-months'  period 
will  have  been  much  less  than  that  for  the  cockerel,  due  to  the 
fact  that  more  of  the  feed  consumed  is  stored  up  in  the  body  as 
flesh,  and  less  converted  into  energy.  After  caponizing,  the  dis- 
position is  modified:  The  birds  become  more  quiet  and  gentle, 
endure  close  confinement  quite  well,  and  lose  inclination  to  fly 
over  obstacles,  or  to  quarrel  and  fight  one  another. 

When  desired,  the  capon  can  be  used  in  colony  houses  during 
the  early  spring  to  hover  and  furnish  heat  for  chicks  as  they  are 
put  on  the  range.  The  capon  develops  such  a  maternal  instinct 
that  he  will  protect  and  care  for  the  young  chicks. 

The  greatly  enhanced  value,  resulting  from  sucn  a  simple 
operation,  is  a  good  reason  why  more  capons  should  be  produced. 
Another  reason  is  that  the  markets  throughout  the  country  are 
but  sparingly  supplied  with  capons,  and  the  demand  for  them 
from  lovers  of  delicate  poultry  meat  is  great.  In  many  European 
countries  few,  if  any,  surplus  cockerels  are  allowed  to  reach  ma- 
turity as  cockerels,  but  they  are  caponized  and  converted  into  a 
high-grade  and  greatly  demanded  table  luxury.  France  is  noted 
for  the  high  quality  of  her  poultry  meat.  The  time  will  doubt- 
less come  when  the  poultryman  will  find  it  difficult  to  dispose 


392  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

of  surplus  cockerels  unless  they  are  caponized.  The  sooner  the 
general  poultryman  and  farmer  appreciate  this  fact,  the  sooner 
will  the  quality  of  poultry  meat  be  so  improved  that  the  income 
and  profit  from  its  sale  will  bring  an  increasing  revenue  to  the 
producer. 

Market  Requirements. — It  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  definite 
capon  season,  for  the  demand  is  constant  throughout  the  year, 
and  the  supply  does  not  begin  to  meet  even  a  fractional  part  of 
it.  December  to  March  is  the  season  when  most  capons  are 
marketed,  yet  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  any  at  general  mar- 
kets because  they  are  immediately  bought  up  at  high  prices. 
The  better  an  article  is,  the  greater  the  demand  for  it  at  corre- 
spondingly high  prices,  and  ordinary  chicken  meat  has  no  chance 
compared  with  capon  meat.  This  fact  is  being  realized  by  the 
more  progressive  poultrymen.  The  demand  is  continuous,  the 
price  paid  is  the  highest  for  any  kind  of  meat,  and  there  are  no 
commercial  seasons  to  make  it  necessary  to  produce  at  that  time 
only.  The  best  birds  for  capons  are  hatched  in  the  early  spring, 
and  the  operation  is  performed  during  the  early  summer  before 
extremely  hot  weather  sets  in.  The  birds  are  then  ready  for  market 
during  and  after  the  holiday  season,  when  there  is  always  the 
greatest  demand  for  market  poultry. 

Best  Breeds  for  Caponizing. — Cockerels  of  any  breed  can  be 
made  to  increase  greatly  in  weight  by  being  caponized;  but  the 
larger  breeds  permit  of  larger  gains  and  are  the  most  desirable. 
For  the  production  of  capons  on  the  farm,  the  Plymouth  Rocks 
are  one  of  the  best  breeds.  The  pullets  may  be  kept  for  eggs  and 
all  the  surplus  cockerels  caponized.  If  the  production  of  capons 
is  a  specialty,  one  of  the  heavier  breeds,  especially  the  Brahma, 
will  prove  more  satisfactory.  The  Light  Brahma  is  undoubt- 
edly the  best  capon  breed.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  to 
get  a  flock  of  such  capons  at  eight  to  ten  months  of  age  to  weigh 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  each.  The  light  capons,  such  as 
are  produced  from  Plymouth  Rocks,  will  probably  always  be  in 
greater  demand,  because  they  furnish  more  nearly  the  amount  of 
meat  required  by  the  average  family,  while  the  larger  capon  will 
serve  instead  of  a  turkey  for  special  occasions,  such  as  holidays 
and  celebrations,  or  for  hotel  and  restaurant  demands.  Crossing 
is  practised  in  the  growing  of  capons,  with  varying  results.  One 
method  is  to  cross  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Light  Brahmas 
in  order  to  get  plumpness  of  breast,  a  little  quicker  maturity,  and 


CAPONS  393 

a  decided  yellowness  of  skin  and  legs.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
if  this  procedure  is  profitable  in  the  long  run.  A  bird  with  hand- 
some plumage  is  more  attractive  as  a  capon,  for  in  dressing  much 
of  the  plumage  is  left  on;  hence  the  partridge-colored  birds  are 
used  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Proper  Age  for  Caponizing. — Cockerels  can  be  caponized  at 
any  age,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  perform  the  operation  after  the 
birds  are  six  months  old,  for  by  that  time  the  natural  function  of 
the  organs  becomes  so  firmly  established  that  their  removal  is  apt 
to  be  disastrous.  Neither  is  it  wise  to  caponize  a  bird  when  too 
young,  for  the  organs  are  not  sufficiently  developed  to  be  easily 
removed,  being  very  soft  and  easily  torn.  In  determining  the 
proper  time  to  caponize,  size  should  be  the  guide  rather  than  age, 
the  best  time  being  when  the  birds  weigh  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  pounds,  or  after  they  are  two  months  old.  June,  July,  Au- 
gust, and  September  are  the  best  months  for  the  operation,  because 
the  spring-hatched  chicks  then  reach  the  right  size;  birds  capon- 
ized at  this  time  will  be  ready  for  market  during  the  months  of 
December,  January,  February,  and  March,  the  season  of  the 
greatest  demand  and  best  prices.  High  prices  at  this  time  are 
partly  due  to  a  falling  off  in  the  supply  of  cockerels,  which  are  so 
abundant  in  the  fall  and  early  winter;  the  capons  fill  in  the  gap 
caused  by  this  reduced  supply  of  cockerels  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  natural  supply  of  spring  broilers  on  the  other.  This  is  not 
necessarily  the  capon  season;  it  is  only  so  termed  from  the  fact 
that  few,  if  any,  are  produced  at  any  other  season. 

Instruments  and  Equipment  Necessary. — Before  performing 
the  operation,  one  should  either  see  it  done  by  an  expert  or  prac- 
tise on  dead  birds  until  familiar  with  the  location  and  appearance 
of  the  organs  to  be  removed  and  the  place  for  the  incision  and  the 
manner  of  making  it,  after  which  perfection  in  the  operation  is 
simply  a  matter  of  practice.  The  student  of  caponizing  should 
first  secure  a  reliable  set  of  instruments  and  become  familiar  with 
the  name  and  purpose  of  each.  There  are  many  sets  on  the  mar- 
ket which  are  far  from  perfect  in  design,  but  the  ones  here  illus- 
trated are  in  most  respects  similar  to  those  used  by  professional 
caponizers.  Instruments  should  be  chosen  for  their  rigidity  and 
durability,  as  well  as  efficiency  and  design.  The  best  sets  are 
made  double, — that  is,  each  end  of  an  instrument  is  designed 
for  some  particular  purpose.  The  set  illustrated  (Fig.  181)  com- 
prises four  instruments,  as  follows:  Spoon  and  hook,  forceps  and 


394 


BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPO-NS 


knife,  cannula  threaded  with  horsehairs,  and  spreader.     A  cord 
\vith  hooks  is  a  part  of  the  set. 

In  reality  the  above  set  consists  of  six  instruments  so  designed 
as  to  be  combined  into  only  four,  thus  lessening  the  time  lost  by 
handling  so  many  instruments.  The  horsehairs  are  thick  and 
about  eighteen  inches  long.  These  form  a  loop  for  the  cannula. 


FIG.  181. — Caponizing  instruments.      A,  Spoon  and  hook;  B,  forceps  and  knife;  C,  cannula 
threaded  with  horsehair;  D,  spreader;  E,  cord  and  hooks. 

A  suitable  table  or  board  is  needed  to  operate  on.  A  barrel  top 
may  be  used,  the  bird  being  fastened  down  to  it  by  means  of  strings 
with  wire  hooks  at  either  end.  To  one  end  of  each  string  a  weight 
is  fastened,  while  one  of  the  free  ends  is  tied  around  the  wings 
near  the  body  and  the  other  around  the  shanks  at  the  hock  joint. 
Where  many  birds  are  to  be  caponized,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a 
special  board  which  is  firm  and  holds  the  bird  securely,  and  so 
arranged  that  he  may  be  quickly  tied  or  released. 

Preparation    of   the    Birds. — For    twenty-eight    to    thirty-six 


CAPONS 


395 


hours  before  the  operation  the  cockerels  selected  should  be  kept 
in  a  clean,  airy  coop,  all  feed  and  water  being  withheld;  this  ab- 
stinence will  empty  the  intestines  and  the  operation  can  be  per- 
formed more  easily.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  shut  them  up  at  night, 
keeping  them  confined  for  thirty-six  hours  and  performing  the 
operation  the  second  morning  after.  If  the  time  set  is  cloudy  or 
wet,  the  operation  should  be  postponed  until  fair  weather,  as  a 
bright  light  is  necessary  for  the  best  work. 

The  amateur  should  follow  the  directions  closely,  for  the  over- 
looking of  some  slight  detail  may  result  in  a  ruptured  artery  or 
the  tearing  of  a  vital  organ,  which  may  mean  death.  Caponizing 
is  the  most  dangerous  of  all  forms  of  emasculation,  since  the  or- 
gans lie  wholly  within  the  cavity  of  the  body  close  to  the  heart, 
lungs,  and  large  arteries;  hence 
the  necessity  of  following  direc- 
tions closely. 

The  Operation. — Place  the  op- 
erating board  on  a  barrel  or  table 
out  of  doors  in  some  sheltered 
place,  but  where  the  sun  shines 
brightly.  Have  the  coop  with  the 
starved  birds  handy.  Provide 
a  shallow  pan  filled  with  a  dis- 
infecting solution,  one  per  cent 
creolin  being  good,  in  which  the 
instruments  can  be  placed.  Take 
the  bird  from  the  coop,  lay  it  on  its  left  side  with  its  back  toward 
the  operator,  and  fasten  to  the  table  in  the  manner  before 
described.  Moisten  the  hands  in  the  disinfecting  solution,  and 
pluck  the  feathers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  last  rib,  leaving  a 
bare  space  free  from  feathers,  bounded  by  the  third  rib,  back- 
bone, and  thigh.  Next  take  the  knife  or  lancet  in  the  right  hand, 
cutting  edge  from  the  operator,  and  with  the  left  hand  press  the 
two  ribs  about  one-half  inch  from  the  backbone  (Fig.  182).  When 
the  knife  enters  the  skin,  the  bird  will  struggle  a  little,  but  after 
this  there  will  be  little  movement  of  any  kind.  The  incision 
should  be  quickly  made  by  making  a  cut  up  and  down  about  one 
inch  long,  always  cutting  away  from  the  backbone,  and  not  re- 
moving the  knife  from  the  cut  until  it  is  of  the  desired  size.  The 
cut  should  be  made  deep  enough  to  penetrate  the  skin  and  body 
walls,  but  not  deep  enough  to  cut  the  intestines.  The  danger  of 


FIG.  182. — Dotted  line  shows  proper 
place  to  make  incision  for  caponizing.  a  and 
6,  last  ribs. 


396 


BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 


Fro 


FIQ.  183. — Steps  in  the  operation  of  caponizing  (continued).  D,  Tearing  the  peritoneum; 
E,  the  organ  exposed  and  ready  for  removal;  F,  appearance  of  the  wound  after  the  opera- 
tion; the  skin  covers  the  opening  when  the  bird  is  released.  (Photos  from  Kansas  Station.) 

this  is,  however,  very  slight  if  the  bird  has  been  properly  starved. 
Little  or  no  blood  should  appear  unless  some  veins  which  lie  di- 
rectly over  the  rib  are  cut.  This  can  be  avoided  by  pulling  the 
skin  back  before  making  the  first  incision  (Fig.  183a). 

Next  insert  the  flat  hooks  of  the  spring  spreader,  allowing 


398  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

them  to  press  against  the  ribs  on  either  side,  and  thus  hold  the 
incision  open,  the  opening  being  controlled  by  the  size  of  the 
chicken.  A  thin,  tissue-like  skin  will  now  be  perceived  on  looking 
into  the  cut,  and  it  is  next  necessary  to  rupture  this  by  using  the 
hook  on  the  end  of  the  spoon.  Care  should  be  used  in  tearing 
this  not  to  rupture  the  intestines  or  arteries.  The  tear  should  be 
right  under  the  incision,  and  no  larger  than  the  opening.  On  look- 
ing into  the  opening  the  testicles  can  now  be  seen,  attached  to 
the  back.  At  the  age  of  three  months  they  will  appear  as  little 
rolls  of  fat,  yellow  in  color,  about  one-half  an  inch  long,  and 
about  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  wheat. 

Now  comes  the  delicate  and  hard  part  of  the  operation, — 
namely,  the  securing  and  removal  of  these  organs.  The  best  pro- 
cedure is  as  follows:  Take  the  spoon  in  the  left  hand,  and  press 
the  intestines  back  with  same  until  the  lower  testicle  lies  in  the 
spoon,  then  take  the  cannula,  which  has  been  previously  threaded 
with  horsehair,  leaving  a  loop  about  double  the  size  of  the  tes- 
ticle, the  hair  being  knotted  at  the  upper  end,  leaving  a  large 
loop  of  such  size  as  to  admit  the  thumb,  and  small  enough  so  that 
it  will  be  possible  to  draw  the  lower  loop  tight  by  an  upward 
movement  of  the  thumb.  After  fixing  the  cannula  firmly  in  the 
right  hand,  place  the  small  loop  over  the  testicle  with  the  aid 
of  the  spoon,  gradually  elevating  the  thumb  until  the  lower 
testicle  is  firmly  held  in  the  loop,  then  by  an  upward  movement 
of  the  thumb  and  a  gradual  drawing  up  of  the  cannula,  at  the 
same  time  twisting  it  slightly,  the  testicle  and  the  sac  in  which 
it  is  enclosed  will  be  entirely  removed.  The  spoon  should  be  held 
under  the  testicle  to  catch  it  when  it  is  severed.  The  same  pro- 
cedure should  follow  in  the  removal  of  the  upper  one,  except  that 
it  will  be  found  much  easier,  as  it  lies  near  the  top  in  better  view 
and  is  more  easily  reached.  The  object  of  removing  the  lower 
one  first  is  that,  in  case  of  any  bleeding  from  prior  removal  of  the 
upper  one,  it  would  be  impossible  to  find  the  lower  one.  After 
both  testicles  are  removed,  take  out  the  spreader,  and  the  skin 
will  slip  back  over  the  opening.  The  bird  should  be  immediately 
released.  It  has  sometimes  been  suggested  that  the  testicle  be 
removed  by  an  incision  on  both  sides  of  the  bird;  but  this  is  un- 
necessary, except  in  the  case  of  the  first  few  birds  done  by  an 
amateur,  or  where  the  birds  have  not  fasted  long  enough. 

Slips  and  Deaths. — If  during  the  operation  the  tissue  of  the 
testicle  is  ruptured  or  torn,  there  is  a  possibility  of  some  of  it 


CAPONS  399 

remaining  attached  to  the  body,  in  which  case  the  organ  will 
start  to  develop  and  a  slip  will  result.  This  means  that  the  opera- 
tion was  incomplete,  that  some  of  the  organ  remains  in  the  body, 
and  that  the  bird  will  not  develop  capon  characteristics  nor  grow 
as  desired.  In  commercial  caponizing  this  accident  occurs  in  from 
three  to  five  per  cent  of  all  birds  operated  upon.  The  possi- 
bility of  fatalities  is  very  slight  after  one  has  acquired  the  art. 
Death  usually  results  from  the  rupture  of  a  large  artery  which 
runs  along  the  back  of  the  body,  and  to  which  the  testicle  sac  is 
closely  attached.  When  this  occurs,  either  from  a  misuse  of  the 
hook  or  a  too  deep  knife  cut  near  the  backbone,  or,  in  some  cases, 
as  a  result  of  not  getting  the  right  hold  on  the  testicle  with  the  hair 
loop,  the  birds  will  immediately  bleed  to  death.  Such  rupture 
is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  blood  in  the 
cavity  of  the  body,  and  perhaps  by  the  noise  which  the  escaping 
blood  makes.  These  birds  should  be  immediately  plucked,  for 
they  can  be  used  as  broilers,  the  bleeding  being  the  same  as  would 
be  caused  by  sticking  in  the  throat.  The  careless  operator  some- 
times ruptures  the  lungs  or  cuts  a  rib,  which  may  lead  to  compli- 
cations at  a  later  date,  but  this  occurrence  is  very  rare.  A  loss 
ranging  from  one  to  three  per  cent  by  death  is  a  safe  estimate. 

Marking  Capons. — It  is  essential  that  all  birds  which  have 
undergone  the  operation,  whether  successfully  or  not,  should 
be  plainly  marked,  so  that  there  will  be  no  possibility  of  "  slips  " 
getting  into  the  breeding  pens.  Toe  punching  and  leg  banding 
are  often  done,  but  in  either  case  there  is  danger  of  the  mark 
becoming  obscured  or,  in  leg  banding,  lost.  In  commercial  work 
it  is  the  custom,  immediately  after  the  operation  and  before  re- 
moving the  bird,  to  sever  the  nail  of  the  right  middle  toe.  This 
slight  wound  heals  almost  immediately,  causes  no  pain,  and  leaves 
a  permanent  mark,  the  end  of  the  toe  never  growing  out  again. 
These  toes  are  usually  collected  by  the  paid  caponizer,  and  hung 
in  a  little  box  under  his  board,  to  serve  as  his  record  of  the  number 
of  birds  caponized. 

Treatment  After  the  Operation. — The  bird  should  be  removed 
from  the  operating  table,  the  proper  way  being  to  carry  him  by 
the  wings,  and  placed  in  a  clean,  airy  coop  which  will  permit 
neither  flying  nor  roosting,  for  the  effort  of  flying  to  roost  is  apt 
to  keep  the  wound  open.  Fresh  water  and  plenty  of  soft  feed 
should  be  immediately  supplied.  The  birds  will  immediately 
begin  to  eat,  and  one  would  never  imagine  that  a  delicate  opera- 


400  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

tion  had  just  been  performed.  An  abundance  of  feed  and  water 
should  be  kept  before  them  for  the  first  week  after  the  operation, 
for  they  develop  an  enormous  appetite  as  a  result  of  the  operation 
and  the  previous  abstinence  from  feed.  Two  or  three  days  after 
the  operation  the  birds  should  be  inspected  to  see  if  there  are 
any  wind  puffs  under  the  skin  in  the  region  of  the  wound,  due  to 
the  formation  of  gases  after  it  had  healed.  These  should  be 
reduced  by  pricking  the  skin  with  a  needle  or  sharp-pointed  knife 
and  allowing  the  air  to  escape.  With  some  birds  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  repeat  this  operation  a  number  of  times.  At  the  end  of 
two  weeks  the  wound  will  be  entirely  healed,  and  the  capon  can 
be  put  permanently  on  range,  and  treated  as  any  other  growing 
bird  where  flesh  growth  is  the  object. 

Changes  in  Appearance  and  Characteristics. — After  the  opera- 
tion the  disposition  and  external  appearance  of  the  birds  seem 
to  change.  Their  bodies  increase  in  size  very  rapidly,  but  the 
combs  and  wattles  entirely  cease  to  grow,  and  they  lose  the  power 
to  crow.  They  become  exceedingly  tame  and  lazy,  develop  heavy 
and  beautiful  plumage,  and  the  spurs  cease  to  grow.  When 
running  with  a  mixed  flock,  they  keep  aloof  from  the  roosters 
and  hens  and  seek  the  company  of  little  chicks.  They  may  often 
be  seen  hovering  the  chicks.  The  more  extensive  capon  producers 
claim  caponizing  is  a  preventive  of  disease,  and  large  flocks  of 
capons  can  run  on  limited  range  with  no  apparent  ill  effects. 
As  a  rule,  they  are  strong,  vigorous,  and  healthy,  only  requiring 
during  development  clean,  light,  and  properly  ventilated  houses 
and  regularity  in  feeding. 

Practice  and  Profits. — Enough  has  been  said  in  the  preced- 
ing pages  of  the  possibilities  and  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a 
more  general  practice  of  caponizing.  It  is  earnestly  recommended 
to  the  farmer  and  poultry  raiser  as  a  means  of  increasing  profits 
and  as  an  advertising  medium  by  creating  a  demand  for  poultry 
meat  of  unexcelled  quality.  In  a  community  of  small  poultry 
farmers  it  is  possible  to  hire  the  work  done  by  professionals,  but 
if  the  poultryman  has  a  great  number  of  fowls  he  sh»uld  do  the 
work  himself. 

The  cost  of  feeding  a  capon  to  maturity,  or  for  twelve  months, 
is  from  seventy-five  cents  to  one  dollar,  depending  on  condition 
and  range.  Add  to  this  the  cost  of  the  operation — five  cents — 
and  the  cost  of  the  chick  at  hatching,  and  we  have  a  total  of 
ninety  cents  to  one  dollar  and  fifteen  cents  at  most.  Assuming 


CAPONS 


401 


an  average  weight  of  eight  pounds  for  a  year-old  bird  and  a  sell- 
ing price  of  thirty  cents,  we  have  a  market  value  at  killing  time 
of  two  dollars  and  forty  cents;  this  leaves  a  profit  of  over  one 
dollar  and  twenty  cents.  But  the  price  and  weight  may  each  be 
less.  A  comparison  of  profits  from  capons  and  cockerels,  as  shown 
in  figure  184,  proves  the  value  of  caponizing. 

Spaying. — By  spaying  is  meant  the  removal  of  the  ovaries 
or  productive  organs  of  the  pullet  or  female  in  much  the  same 


FIG.   184. — The  comparison  of  weights  (cockerel  5%  Ibs.,  capon  7%  Ibs.)  proves  the  advan- 
tage of  caponizing.     Both  are  from  the  same  brood  of  Langshans,  seven  months  old. 

manner  as  caponizing  is  performed.     From  a  practical  stand- 
point it  will  never  become  general,  for  the  following  reasons: 

The  value  of  pullets  for  egg  production  is  so  high  that  it  is 
doubtful  if  they  would  ever  be  as  profitable  if  disposed  of  for  meat. 

After  the  operation  there  is  no  pronounced  change  in  charac- 
teristics, nor  is  there  the  rapid  development  of  flesh  seen  in  capons. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  remove  the  ovaries  so  completely 
that  they  will  not  again  develop, — even  with  the  greatest  care 
and  the  use  of  caustics  to  kill  any  remaining  tissue. 

Therefore  the  results  of  spaying  are  not  such  as  to  warrant 
its  general  practice. 
26 


402  BROILERS,  ROASTERS,  AND  CAPONS 

REVIEW. 

1.  Name  five  types  of  market  poultry  and  tell  which  is  in  greatest  demand. 

2.  How  does  broiler  raising  rank  as  a  branch  of  the  poultry  industry? 

3.  Define  a  broiler. 

4.  Give  the  market  types  of  broilers. 

5.  Outline  broiler  seasons. 

6.  Give  six  features  required  in  a  desirable  broiler. 

7.  Which  type  of  bird  is  best  adapted  to  broiler  raising? 

8.  Outline  the  essential  features  in  broiler  management. 

9.  Discuss  broiler  prices  at  different  seasons. 

10.  What  is  the  relation  between  cost  of  production  and  profits? 

11.  What  is  a  fryer? 

12.  What  sections  are  noted  for  roaster  growing? 

13.  What  is  a  roaster?    Give  the  desirable  features. 

14.  Discuss  the  market  types  of  roasters. 

15.  What  breeds  are  best  adapted  to  roaster  growing? 

16.  Discuss  roaster  seasons  and  prices. 

17.  What  can  you  say  of  the  capon  industry? 

18.  Give  seven  advantages  of  capons  over  cockerels  for  meat. 

19.  Discuss  market  requirements  and  demand  for  capons. 

20.  What  is  the  proper  age  to  caponize?    Why? 

21.  Describe  the  instruments  necessary. 

22.  How  should  the  bird  be  prepared  for  the  operation? 

23.  Describe  the  operation  in  detail. 

24.  What  is  a  "slip"? 

25.  Describe  the  resulting  changes  in  the  appearance  of  a  capon. 

26.  How  should  capons  be  marked? 

27.  What  is  spaying?    Why  not  profitable? 

References. — Feeding  Experiments  with  Capons,  New  York  Bulletin  53, 
Capons  and  Caponizing,  by  Robert  R.  Slocum,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  452. 
Capons  for  Kansas,  by  W.  A.  Lippincott,  Kansas  Circular  27.  Capons,  by 
O.  M.  Watson,  South  Carolina  Bulletin  62.  Capons  and  Caponizing,  by  F.  L. 
Washburn,  Oregon  Bulletin  31. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING. 

Fattening. — The  operation  of  fattening  is  distinctly  a  finish- 
ing or  ripening  process,  to  have  the  bird's  flesh  in  the  best  possible 
condition  for  human  consumption.  The  condition,  when  attained, 
may  be  perceived  both  externally  and  internally;  externally,  in 
the  plumpness  of  the  fowl  and  the  color  of  the  skin;  internally, 
by  the  presence  of  enough  oily  or  fatty  tissue  to  make  it  delicious 
eating.  There  is  always  a  demand  for  dressed  poultry,  whether 
good  or  poor.  There  is,  however,  rarely  a  time  when  the  inferior 
product  brings  more  than  a  very  low  price,  and  this  often  means 
loss.  Birds  of  high  quality,  especially  prepared  for  market,  always 
yield  a  profit. 

When  only  a  few  birds  are  to  be  killed,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
extensive  preparations  for  fattening  will  be  found  profitable; 
but  when  large  numbers  are  marketed  every  year,  a  close  study 
of  the  relation  between  weight,  cost,  and  selling  price  will  demon- 
strate to  the  poultryman  the  profit  to  be  derived  from  systematic 
and  careful  fattening.  These  terms  are  used  to  describe  dressed 
poultry :  Thin,  plump,  and  fat.  Plump  birds  are  by  far  in  greatest 
demand  at  the  highest  prices.  There  is  very  little  sale  for  exces- 
sively fat  birds  of  any  type.  Thin  birds  are  produced  in  great 
numbers  on  the  general  farms  of  the  country,  and  are  disposed  of 
with  no  attempt  to  put  them  in  condition.  Such  birds  are  not 
attractive  when  dressed  and  displayed,  hence  not  in  general  de- 
mand, yet  they  are  usually  disposed  of  in  large  numbers  at  low 
prices  to  a  trade  that  cannot  afford  to  pay  higher  prices  for  a 
better  product.  Thin  birds  have  a  shrunken,  knotted  appearance 
and  prominent  bones;  when  cooked,  unless  very  young  birds,  the 
flesh  is  tough  and  dry  for  want  fcof  fat.  A  large  percentage  of 
poultry  marketed  in  America  is  unfinished  and  of  inferior  grade. 

Special  Fattening  Processes. — There  are  three  distinct  ways 
of  finishing  birds  previous  to  killing.  A  choice  depends  upon  the 
age  of  the  bird  and  the  quality  of  flesh  desired.  These  methods 
are :  Flock  or  pen  fattening,  crate  fattening,  and  cramming. 

Flock  or  Pen  Fattening. — This  is  the  common  method  of  fat- 
tening cockerels  and  fowls,  although  old  hens  usually  do  not 

403 


404  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

require  much  finishing,  as  it  is  natural  for  them  to  take  on  fat 
and  to  be  plump  and  of  good  weight.  With  cockerels  the  custom  is 
to  confine  them  in  small  yards,  usually  in  large  numbers,  the 
total  number  of  cockerels  in  one  pen  running  from  ten  up  to  one 
hundred.  Their  exercise  is  restricted  by  limiting  the  range,  and 
they  are  fed  often,  corn  constituting  the  bulk  of  the  ration.  In 
some  instances  wet  mashes  are  given.  In  the  majority  of  cases, 
cracked  corn  and  wheat  supplement  a  dry-mash  which  contains  a 
large  amount  of  corn  meal  and  at  least  thirty  per  cent  of  meat. 
The  rations  fed  under  farm  conditions  vary  greatly  in  different 
communities,  according  to  the  number  of  birds  to  be  marketed. 
This  method  of  pen  or  flock  fattening  is  often  applied  to  the 
finishing  of  broilers.  As  a  rule,  young  broiler  chickens  are  riot 
finished,  owing  to  their  rapid  growth  and,  consequently,  their 
fine  flesh.  It  is  often  profitable  to  vary  the  ration  during  the 
last  week  or  two  before  killing,  feeding  skim  milk  and  corn  meal 
mashes  plentifully  with  a  larger  allowance  of  meat;  if  they  have 
been  on  range,  comparatively  close  confinement  during  the  last 
weeks  is  desirable.  Usually,  however,  broilers  grown  in  season 
are  closely  confined  during  the  entire  growing  period,  as  out-of- 
door  conditions  do  not  allow  them  range. 

Crate  Fattening. — This  mode  of  fattening  is  used  by  large 
plants  having  a  heavy  output  of  poultry  for  meat,  but  its  develop- 
ment is  greatest  in  the  large  and  special  poultry-fattening  and 
slaughter  houses  in  the  central  and  south-central  sections  of  the 
country.  These  firms  buy  poorly  nourished  live  poultry  from  the 
South  and  West,  which  is  shipped  to  them  by  carloads.  Then 
it  is  sorted  and  put  through  a  special  course  of  finishing,  after 
which  it  is  sold  at  a  profit.  When  the  improvement  and  profits 
resulting  from  crate  fattening  are  clearly  understood,  this  will 
doubtless  be  more  generally  practised  among  poultry  producers, 
with  the  result  that  a  higher  quality  of  dressed  poultry  will  be 
displayed  at  our  larger  markets.  The  methods  here  described 
are  the  ones  in  use  in  extensive  fattening  establishments. 

These  fattening  stations  consist  of  buildings  used  exclusively 
for  the  fattening  of  chickens,  and  are  usually  operated  in  con- 
nection with  large  poultry  and  egg-packing  houses.  Such  stations 
are  generally  found  in  poultry-producing  centres,  where  the  farmer 
sells  his  poultry  in  comparatively  poor  condition,  provided  there 
are  facilities  for  shipping  and  marketing  or  for  holding  it  in  cold 
storage.  These  stations  are  usually  located  at  or  near  railroad 


FATTENING 


405 


junctions,  in  order  that  stock  for  fattening  can  be  secured  from 
a  large  surrounding  territory. 

Two  types  of  crates  are  used,  the  stationary  and  the  portable. 
These  crates  are  usually  constructed  so  that  a  number  of  them  form 
a  unit,  each  unit  being  called  a  battery.  The  stationary  batteries 
are  rapidly  falling  into  disuse,  and  portable  ones  are  taking  their 
place,  much  less  labor  being  required  to  operate  the  portable 
ones.  They  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  fit  any  room  or  building.  An 
excellent  feeding  battery  is  shown  in  figure  185.  It  is  constructed 
as  follows:  This  battery  is  divided  into  eight  coops,  four  tiers  of 
two  coops  each,  and  holds  eighty  spring  chickens  or  sixty-four 
hens.  It  is  2  feet  7K  inches  wide,  and  5  feet  9  inches  high.  The 
slats  in  front  are  1  %  inches 
apart.  Each  set  of  slats  is 
8M  inches  wide,  and  is  fastened 
by  buttons,  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  removed  and  a  set  of 
slats  closer  together  or  farther 
apart  quickly  inserted.  As  the 
chickens'  heads  vary  consider- 
ably in  size  during  the  season, 
this  adjustable  front  is  neces- 
sary. The  dropping  pans  are 
1/4  inches  below  the  floors, 
which  are  made  of  heavy, 
square-mesh  wire,  roosting 
poles  are  2  inches  wide,  M  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  2  feet  6  inches 
long.  The  first  floor  is  6  inches 
from  the  ground,  and  it  is  15  inches  from  the  wire  floor  to  the 
top  of  each  coop;  thus  each  tier,  including  the  dropping  pans,  is 
16%  inches  deep.  The  battery  rolls  on  four  wheels,  two  double- 
pivot  wheels  in  front,  and  -two  wheels  connected  by  a  bar  in  the 
rear.  The  sliding  doors  on  the  sides  are  fitted  with  hooks  which 
fasten  into  eyes  on  the  battery.  The  whole  battery  is  made  of 
furring,  1%  by  %  inches,  covered  with  2-inch-mesh  wire  and 
laths.  The  feeding  troughs  are  3^  inches  across  the  top,  inside 
measurement,  and  3  inches  from  top  to  bottom,  outside  measure- 
ment. These  troughs  are  held  in  place  by  flexible  bent  wires 
which  yield  if  the  troughs  hit  any  obstacle,  thus  preventing  break- 
age. A  wire  partition  divides  the  battery  into  two  equal  parts. 


FIG.  185. — A  portable  battery  of  feeding 
coops,  used  in  commercial  crate  fattening.  The 
weighing,  feeding,  and  moving  of  the  birds  can 
be  done  without  taking  them  from  the  coops. 
(Photo  by  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 


406  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

Care  in  Crate  Fattening. — From  six  to  ten  birds,  according 
to  size,  are  placed  in  each  division  of  the  battery.  They  should 
be  weighed  when  placed  in  the  crates  so  that  the  gain  can  be  de- 
termined. Many  mixtures  of  grain  have  proved  successful.  The 
best  rations  are  usually  composed  of  corn  meal  and  low-grade 
flour,  about  60  per  cent  of  the  former  and  40  per  cent  of  the  latter. 
Six  per  cent  of  tallow  is  sometimes  added  to  this  ration,  with 
varying  results.  Grit  is  generally  provided,  especially  if  the  birds 
are  kept  on  feed  for  two  weeks  or  more,  and  four  pounds  to  each 
hundred  birds  are  given  twice  a  week.  Clover  or  alfalfa  meal, 
meat  meal,  blood  meal,  charcoal,  and  sometimes  salt,  are  added 
to  the  ration,  according  to  the  ideas  of  various  feeders,  but  their 
use  is  not  essential. 

The  excessive  feeding  of  very  concentrated  rations  often  has 
the  effect  of  making  the  birds  pull  feathers  and  pick  at  each 
other;  they  often  keep  at  it  until  they  have  eaten  much  of  the 
flesh  of  live  chickens.  In  such  cases  reduce  the  concentration  and 
substitute  greens  and  a  small  amount  of  meat  or  blood  meal. 

Milk  or  buttermilk  is  essential  in  all  fattening  rations.  Milk 
in  some  form  is  used  to  soften  the  rations,  and  acts  on  the  diges- 
tive processes,  keeping  the  birds  in  good  condition  during  forcing. 
If  much  milk  is  given,  the  amount  of  meat  may  be  reduced.  But- 
termilk and  skim  milk  are  generally  used,  and  the  milk  may  be 
either  sweet  or  sour,  but  usually  it  is  sour.  The  feed  should  be 
thoroughly  mixed,  either  with  a  rake  or  a  machine,  according  to 
the  quantity,  so  that  there  will  be  no  lumps  or  dry  masses.  The 
consistency  should  be  about  that  of  cream,  or  so  that  it  will  drip 
from  the  tip  of  a  large  wooden  spoon.  Chickens  seem  to  prefer  a 
thicker  mixture,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  they  get  sufficient  nourish- 
ment from  it,  for  their  hunger  is  much  sooner  satisfied  than  when 
compelled  to  eat  the  thin  one.  The  percentage  of  milk  to  use  in 
the  mixture  depends  upon  the  grains,  the  weather,  and  method  of 
feeding;  about  60  per  cent  seems  to  give  the  best  results.  Suc- 
cessful fattening  depends  largely  upon  whether  the  feeder  watches 
his  birds  and  notes  their  condition.  The  first  two  or  three  feeds 
should  be  light  and  the  amount  gradually  increased  until  the 
birds  can  be  given  all  they  will  eat  up  clean. 

The  birds  are  usually  fed  from  two  to  five  times  daily,  but 
three  is  best  for  the  small  or  amateur  feeder.  The  use  of  milk  has 
a  tendency  to  produce  white  flesh,  which  in  certain  markets  is 
not  as  desirable  as  yellow;  this,  however,  is  merely  a  matter  of 


FATTENING  407 

choice,  not  of  quality.  Birds  specially  fattened  are  usually  dressed. 
Small  lots  are  shipped  direct  to  the  point  of  consumption.  In  the 
case  of  large  feeding  stations,  they  are  put  into  cold  storage  and 
held  for  future  shipment.  The  shrinkage  in  dressing  is  approxi- 
mately 14  per  cent. 

When  crate  fattening  is  the  method,  care  must  be  exercised 
to  keep  the  crates  in  well-ventilated  buildings,  for  fresh  air  is 
essential  to  the  process.  The  coops  must  be  cleaned  regularly 
every  other  day,  and  disinfected  at  least  every  week:  Careful 
records  should  be  kept  of  the  feed  consumed  and  the  gain  in 
weight  during  the  feeding  period,  to  determine  whether  or  not 
the  practice  is  profitable,  and  to  what  extent. 

Extensive  experiments  with  this  method  of  fattening,  made  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  led  to  the  following 
conclusions : 

The  Plymouth  Rocks  and  other  general-utility  breeds  can  be 
fattened  at  less  cost  than  the  Mediterranean  breeds,  such  as 
Leghorns. 

Chickens  of  the  same  breed  vary  greatly  in  the  amount  of 
flesh  they  put  on  during  the  fattening  period. 

Where  a  number  of  birds  are  to  be  fattened,  the  use  of  por- 
table coops  or  batteries  is  found  most  profitable;  less  labor  is 
required,  and  the  birds  turn  out  in  better  condition. 

Low-grade  wheat  flour  is  one  of  the  most  economical  feeds, 
being  far  superior  to  oatmeal. 

It  will  take  approximately  from  three  to  three  and  one-half 
pounds  of  grain  to  produce  one  pound  of  flesh;  hence  the  feed 
cost  averages  six  to  eight  cents  for  each  pound  gained.  The  cost 
of  labor  per  pound  of  increase  is  from  one  to  three  cents,  according 
to  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  pens;  therefore  the  total 
cost  of  a  pound  of  gain,  counting  feed  and  labor,  is  approximately 
seven  to  eleven  cents. 

Less  expensive  gain  in  flesh  is  usually  made  by  short  feed- 
ing periods  ranging  from  seven  to  ten  days. 

Hens  do  badly  under  crate  fattening,  and  it  is  usually  un- 
profitable to  attempt  it ;  if  fattening  is  necessary,  the  flock  method 
will  give  the  best  results  at  small  cost. 

Records  should  always  be  kept  so  that  the  gains  can  be  esti- 
mated ;  for  it  often  happens  that  birds  are  carried  through  in  small 
flocks  by  inexperienced  feeders  at  a  loss  not  only  of  money  but  in 
weight  as  well. 


408 


FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 


Cramming  means  the  introduction  of  feed  into  the  bird's 
crop  by  physical  force,  with  no  aid  or  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
bird.  There  are  three  distinct  methods  of  cramming, — namely, 
hand,  funnel,  and  machine  cramming. 

Hand  cramming  is  rarely  resorted  to  in  this  country,  but  is 
done  quite  extensively  on  small  plants  in  England.  The  method 
is  to  place  feed  in  the  bird's  mouth  in  the  form  of  a  pellet,  force 
it  down  with  the  finger,  and  then  work  it  into  the  crop  by  pressing 
the  hand  downward  on  the  outside  of  the  gullet.  It  is  occasionally 


FIG.  186. — Common  type  of 
funnel  used  in  cramming.  The 
point  is  rounded  to  prevent  in- 
jury to  the  bird's  throat. 


FIG.  187. — Cramming  machine 
used  extensively  in  Europe,  but  as 
yet  very  little  in  America. 


done  in  this  country  in  the  fattening  of  geese,  but  is  so  laborious 
that  it  is  impracticable. 

Funnel  cramming  is  a  method  not  extensively  employed  in 
America,  but  it  is  more  effective  and  more  rapid  than  hand  cram- 
ming. In  this  process  the  feed  is  mixed  into  a  thin  paste  of  about 
the  consistency  of  cream,  and  poured  through  a  long-necked  funnel 
sc  shaped  that  it  will  not  injure  the  bird  when  passed  down  the 
gullet  until  the  lower  end  enters  the  crop  (Fig.  186).  On  insert- 
ing it  care  must  be  taken  not  to  choke  the  bird,  and  only  enough 
feed  should  be  introduced  to  fill  the  crop. 

Machine  cramming  is  widely  practised  in  Europe,  but  not  to 
a  great  extent  in  this  country  as  yet  (Fig.  187).  It  consists  in 


KILLING  409 

forcing  feed  into  the  crop  with  a  specially  constructed  machine. 
The  feed  is  placed  in  a  metallic  vessel  or  cylinder,  and  then  by  a 
plunger,  operated  by  foot  power,  is  forced  into  a  tube  which  is 
passed  down  the  bird's  gullet  and  into  the  crop.  With  practice 
this  can  be  done  very  rapidly,  and,  when  done  by  skilful  operators, 
tends  to  produce  the  choicest  quality  of  flesh.  The  development 
of  artificial  feeding  in  this  country  will  depend  upon  an  increased 
demand  for  a  superior  quality  of  meat.  The  profits  from  machine- 
fed  poultry  are  large,  even  counting  the  increased  cost  of  labor, 
because  of  the  great  gain  in  weight  and  improved  quality  of  meat. 

Regardless  of  the  method  practised,  the  following  points 
should  be  borne  in  mind :  The  object  is  constant  growth ;  restricted 
exercise;  no  overfeeding;  birds  allowed  to  become  hungry  be- 
tween feedings;  period  not  too  long,  or  loss  will  follow. 

Killing. — If  dressed  poultry  is  to  reach  the  consumer  in  the 
best  possible  condition  as  regards  flavor,  wholesomeness,  appear- 
ance, and  perfect  state  of  preservation,  it  must  be  properly  killed. 
Much  of  the  loss  resulting  from  the  shipping  and  storage  of  dressed 
poultry  that  soon  spoils  is  due  to  improper  sticking  and  bleeding 
and  to  neglect  before  killing. 

Preparation  for  Killing. — In  the  preservation  of  good  market 
qualities  in  a  well-fed  fowl  or  chicken,  it  is  well  to  starve  it  for 
twenty-four  hours  before  killing,  supplying  it,  however,  during 
this  time  with  fresh,  clean  water.  This  period  of  fasting  empties 
the  crop,  and  partially  the  intestines  also.  A  distended  crop 
makes  the  bird  look  unattractive,  and  the  contents  will  discolor 
the  flesh  during  storage.  The  same  is  true  of  the  intestines;  if 
full,  a  discoloration  soon  appears,  and  the  contents  offer  a  fertile 
field  in  which  putrefactive  bacteria  may  grow  and  multiply  when 
taken  from  storage,  or  even  during  display. 

Methods  of  Killing. — The  essential  point  in  slaughtering  is 
to  empty  the  blood-vessels,  and  to  do  this  in  such  a  way  as  to 
facilitate  the  plucking  of  the  feathers.  With  dry  picking  this 
is  of  special  importance.  It  is  estimated  that  fully  thirty  per 
cent  of  all  poultry  shipped  into  the  larger  cities  is  improperly 
bled,  and  much  of  it  in  such  poor  condition  as  to  be  retailed  at 
a  loss  ranging  from  two  to  five  cents  a  pound,  when  compared  with 
similar  birds  which  had  been  well  bled  and  are  in  good  order. 
Insufficient  bleeding  not  only  gives  to  the  carcass  a  bad  appear- 
ance, but  makes  it  spoil  quickly,  the  flesh  loses  its  firmness  sooner, 
and  its  flavor  is  not  so  good.  The  common  odor  of  stale  flesh,  and 


410  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

later  of  putrefaction,  is  soon  perceptible,  and  in  every  way  the 
product  is  more  perishable. 

There  are  three  distinct  methods  of  killing  poultry, — dis- 
locating the  neck,  sticking  and  beheading. 

Dislocation. — Neck  dislocation  is  not  very  common  except 
in  the  case  of  squabs.  It  consists  in  holding  the  bird's  head  just 
back  of  the  jawbone,  with  the  right  hand,  while  the  left  grasps 
the  body  at  the  shoulders;  the  neck  is  bent  on  the  back  and  twisted 
or  turned  about  three-quarters  of  the  way  around,  then  extended 
quickly  and  with  considerable  force.  This  quick  rotary  movement 
dislocates  the  upper  vertebra  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  rupturing 
the  spinal  column  and  causing  instant  death.  The  advantage 
of  this  method  is  its  rapidity  and  cleanliness,  but  an  objection 
to  its  general  adoption  is  the  fact  that  it  does  not  permit  free 
bleeding,  and  this  is  necessary  to  produce  a  well-dressed  specimen 
which  will  keep  a  long  time. 

Sticking. — The  method  known  as  sticking  consists  in  the 
severing  of  the  arteries  of  the  neck  through  the  mouth,  making 
no  outside  cut  whatsoever.  When  the  feathers  are  to  be  removed 
by  scalding,  the  bird  is  merely  bled  to  death ;  but  if  dry  picking  is 
to  be  done,  there  are  two  procedures, — namely,  the  severing  of  an 
artery  in  the  neck  to  cause  bleeding  and  the  sticking  of  the  brain 
to  paralyze  the  muscles  of  the  feathers. 

The  process  of  sticking  can  be  briefly  described  as  follows 
(Fig.  188): 

1.  When  ready  to  kill,  grasp  the  bird  by  the  bony  prominence 
of  the  skull  just  back  of  the  angles  of  the  jaw,  being  careful  not 
to  let  the  fingers  touch  the  neck,  as  this  might  cause  pressure 
upon  the  artery  and  check  the  free  flow  of  blood. 

2.  Make  a  cut  with  a  small,  sharp-pointed  knife  on  the  right  side 
of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  where  the  bones  of  the  skull  terminate. 

3.  Brain  for  dry  picking  by  forcing  the   knife   through  the 
groove  which  runs  along  the  median  line  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
until  it  touches  the  skull  midway  between  the  eyes.    The  point  of 
the  blade  should  then  be  moved  backward  and  forward  to  rupture 
the  nerve  tissue,  thus  paralyzing  the  bird,  yet  not  causing  instan- 
taneous death.    This  latter  operation  is  sometimes  performed  by 
thrusting  the  knife  under  the  eye  at  such  an  angle  that  the  point 
will  touch  the  skull  in  the  same  place, — midway  between  the  eyes. 
The  outside  cut,  however,  disfigures  the  bird,  and  is  no  better 
than  the  inside  thrust.    The  position  of  hands  and  knife  are  shown 
in  figure  188. 


KILLING 


411 


FIG.  188. — Proper  method  of  sticking  and  dry  picking.  A,  Sticking  the  jugular  vein 
to  cause  bleeding;  B,  spreading  the  beak  to  cause  free  bleeding;  C,  piercing  the  brain  to 
cause  relaxation  of  muscles,  allowing  the  feathers  to  be  removed  without  tearing  the  skin; 
D,  plucking  main  tail  and  wing  feathers;  E,  bird  roughed  and  ready  for  pinning;  F ,  removing 
pin  feathers,  railed  "pinning." 


412 


FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 


4.  The  best  knife  blade  to  use  is  one  not  more  than  two  inches 
long  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide,  with  a  sharp  point,  a  straight 
cutting  edge,  and  a  thin,  flat  handle.  Figure  189  shows  the  kind 
of  knife  recommended  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. The  knife  should  be  stiff,  so  that  it  does  not  bend;  of 
the  best  steel,  so  that  it  can  be  kept  sharp  and  will  not  be  nicked 
in  braining;  and  the  handle  and  blade  should  be  in  one  piece. 
Such  a  knife,  with  the  aid  of  a,n  emery  wheel  or  grindstone  and 
oilstone,  can  be  made  from  an  8-inch  flat  file. 

To  make  this  knife,  the  handle  of  the  file  should  first  be  ground 
off.  Then  the  blade  should  be  shaped  from  the  small  end  of  the 
file  as  shown  in  figure  189.  The  curve  of  the  point  should  slope 
from  the  back  downward.  A  blade  of  this  shape  reaches  the 
blood-vessels  to  be  cut  more  surely  than  does  a  blade  on  which 


FIG.  189. — An  excellent  killing  knife  can  be  made  from  an  ordinary  file. 

the  point  curves  upward.  After  the  blade  is  made,  the  ridges 
on  the  file  should  be  ground  down,  leaving  just  enough  roughness 
to  prevent  the  knife  slipping  in  the  hand  of  the  killer.  The  length 
of  the  knife  over  all  should  be  seven  inches. 

Before  sticking,  the  bird  is"  usually  suspended  by  its  feet, 
the  head  down  and  on  a  level  with  the  waist  of  the  operator.  A 
looped  cord  is  frequently  used  to  hold  the  bird;  but  a  better  plan 
is  to  bend  a  piece  of  wire  into  the  shape  shown  in  figure  188,  A, 
the  bird's  legs  being  caught  in  the  loops  at  the  bottom.  This 
device  is  quickly  and  easily  fastened  in  place,  and  it  holds  the 
bird  securely  with  its  legs  spread,  thus  facilitating  picking. 

Instead  of  sticking  the  brain,  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to 
stun  the  bird,  and  partially  paralyze  it,  by  striking  the  head 
with  a  piece  of  wood;  but  this  method  is  being  generally  super- 
seded by  cutting  and  sticking.  With  large,  old  birds,  stunning  is 
sometimes  resorted  to  in  order  to  stop  their  struggles. 


PLUCKING  413 

A  number  of  special  appliances  have  been  designed  with  the 
idea  of  systematizing  and  facilitating  the  killing  and  plucking  of 
chickens,  and  one  of  the  most  popular  of  these  is  known  as  the 
Cornell  killing  and  picking  box. 

Beheading. — The  practice  of  beheading  chickens  is  at  present 
largely  confined  to  farms  where  one  or  only  a  few  birds  are  killed 
for  family  use  or  retail  trade.  Poultry  killed  in  this  way  is  not 
in  demand  at  the  larger  markets;  it  does  not  keep  well  and  is 
unattractive  when  displayed  for  sale.  The  customary  way  is  to 
grasp  the  bird  by  the  legs  and  wings, — brought  together  and  held 
in  the  same  hand, — the  head  and  neck  being  placed  on  a  heavy 
piece  of  wood  or  chopping-block,  and  the  neck  severed  about  one 
inch  from  the  base  of  the  skull  with  a  sharp  hatchet.  The  ac- 
curacy of  the  blow  can  be  assured  if  the  head  is  held  firmly  on 
the  block  by  means  of  large  nails  driven  in  the  edge  of  the  block 
about  one  inch  apart,  the  neck  being  placed  between  these,  and 
the  body  drawn  away  from  them  until  the  skull  and  jawbones 
are  against  the  nails.  This  distends  the  neck  and  does  not  permit 
the  bird  to  flop  or  move  its  head. 

After  beheading,  the  body  should  be  held  firmly  and  the  neck 
pressed  against  an  old  piece  of  burlap  to  prevent  spattering  until 
the  bird  has  become  quiet.  For  home  consumption  this  method 
is  quick,  and,  if  the  fowl  is  scalded  and  meat  cooked  immediately, 
the  plan  is  a  good  one.  The  market  objects  to  a  beheaded  bird, 
on  account  of  its  spoiling  sooner.  Besides,  the  head  indicates  the 
breed  and  sex,  also  the  condition  of  the  bird  when  killed.  Behead- 
ing, therefore,  is  not  permissible  in  the  killing  of  dressed  poultry 
for  shipping  and  storage. 

Plucking. — There  are  two  distinct  methods  for  removing 
feathers, — dry  picking  and  scalding. 

Dry  picking  consists  in  plucking  the  feathers  immediately 
after  sticking,  without  immersing  the  body  in  hot  water,  and 
is  called  for  by  nearly  all  markets,  especially  the  wholesale 
trade.  The  advantages  of  this  method  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows:  (1)  Better  preservation.  (2)  Better  appearance  of 
the  finished  carcass.  (3)  It  is  possible  to  save  the  feathers, 
and  have  them  in  better  condition  for  sale.  (4)  There  is  no 
danger  of  ruining  the  meat  by  parboiling  it  with  the  hot  water 
used  in  scalding. 

Dry  picking  is  an  art,  and  perfection  in  it  calls  for  consider- 
able practice.  The  knack  of  grasping  the  feathers  and  removing 


414  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

them  rapidly  in  large  clusters,  without  tearing  or  injuring  the 
skin,  can  only  be  acquired  by  learning  the  principles  involved 
and  by  the  constant  application  of  these  to  the  work  until  the 
knack  is  acquired. 

The  usual  custom  is  to  pluck  the  feathers  first  from  the  parts 
of  the  body  which  tear  the  easiest,  the  order  of  plucking  being 
as  follows:  Breast,  neck,  shoulder,  and  thighs,  these  small  feath- 
ers being  tossed  into  a  barrel  at  the  side  of  the  picker;  next  the 
large  wing  and  tail  feathers  are  removed,  and  usually  thrown  on 
the  floor  and  discarded,  as  they  are  of  little  commercial  value. 
The  small  or  fluffy  feathers  are  next  removed,  care  being  taken 
when  plucking  not  to  bruise  the  skin  with  the  fingers  or  nails. 
The  feathers  are  grasped  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  with 
just  enough  pressure  to  pull  them  out.  The  picker  becomes 
accustomed  to  holding  feathers  just  tight  enough  to  let  them  slip 
through  his  fingers  before  the  skin  tears. 

After  the  feathers  are  removed  the  bird  is  said  to  be  "  roughed  " 
(Fig.  188,  E).  Next  it  must  be  gone  over  and  the  pinfeathers 
extracted.  This  is  usually  accomplished  with  a  knife,  the  small 
pins  and  broken  feathers  being  grasped  between  the  knife  blade 
and  the  thumb,  the  knife  being  passed  over  the  skin  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  that  in  which  the  pinfeathers  grow. 

In  large  poultry-picking  establishments  the  work  of  "  rough- 
ing "  is  usually  done  by  one  group  of  pickers,  and  the  "  pinning  " 
by  another;  thus  a  larger  number  can  be  turned  out,  for  "pinning  " 
takes  practically  as  long  as  picking,  and  yet  does  not  require  as 
much  practice  and  can  be  done  by  cheaper  labor.  On  the  average 
farm  where  one  man  does  all  the  work,  one  hundred  birds  is  a 
good,  ten-hour  day's  work  (Fig.  190). 

There  are  two  modes  of  picking,— standing  and  lap  picking,— 
the  former  being  more  generally  used.  Lap  picking  is  quite  com- 
mon in  New  England;  the  operator  sits  beside  a  box  and  holds 
the  bird  in  his  lap  with  its  head  between  the  box  and  his  right 
leg,  the  fine  feathers  being  thrown  into  the  box  while  picking. 
The  greatest  objection  to  this  method  is  the  danger  of  bruising 
the  bird's  flesh  by  rubbing  its  skin  against  the  legs.  This  can  be 
averted  by  suspending  the  bird. 

Scalding. —This  method  of  plucking  fowls  is  quite  generally 
used  on  farms  throughout  the  country,  and  especially  for  retail 
trade.  Undoubtedly  it  is  the  easiest  way  to  remove  feathers, 
and,  if  properly  done,  does  not  materially  injure  the  bird  for 


PLUCKING  415 

immediate  consumption.  But  the  inferior  grade  of  much  of 
the  scalded  product  put  on  the  market  results  in  much  criticism 
of  the  practice. 

In  scalding  poultry  two  essential  factors  must  be  remembered: 
(1)  Have  a  vessel  large  enough  so  that  the  bird  can  be  easily  and 
completely  immersed.  (2)  Have  the  water  at  the  desired  tem- 
perature, neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold.  The  water  should  be 


FIG.  190. — Dry  picking  squab  broilers.  Where  a  large  number  are  to  be  killed  the 
work  should  be  systematized,  each  man  having  a  special  work  to  do.  A,  Sticking;  B,  rough- 
ing; C,  pinning.  (Photo  by  Rancocas  Poultry  Farm.) 

below  the  boiling  point, — at  about  200°  F., — and  the  temperature 
taken  by  means  of  a  hot-water  thermometer. 

If  too  cold  it  will  not  loosen  the  feathers,  and  they  will  be  as 
hard  or  harder  to  remove  than  by  dry  picking.  If  a  pail  is  used 
and  boiling  water  is  poured  into  the  pail,  the  reduction  in  tem- 
perature due  to  the  cold  pail  will  make  the  water  just  about 
right  to  use  immediately.  The  bird  should  be  taken  by  the  feet 
and  thoroughly  soused  up  and  down  in  the  water  until  the  feathers 
are  all  ruffled  and  wet,  clear  to  the  skin  (Fig.  191).  If  the  bird 


416  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

is  to  be  marketed  with  the  head  on,  it  is  best  to  hold  both  the 
head  and  feet,  keeping  the  head  and  neck  feathers  out  of  the  water. 
Full  fluffy-feathered  birds  must  be  held  in  the  water  longer  than 
thin  or  sparsely  feathered  birds.  After  scalding,  the  bird  should 
be  allowed  to  drain  before  picking.  The  method  of  picking  de- 
pends upon  the  four  following  conditions: 

1.  Age  of  the  bird.  The  general  practice  is  to-  scald  fowls, 
since  scalding  has  less  effect  on  their  appearance  and  preserva- 
tion than  on  young  birds. 


FIG.  191. — Scalding  before  picking  is  a  method  adapted  only  to  retail  or  home  trade. 
A,  The  bird,  after  bleeding,  is  grasped  by  the  head  and  feet  and  immersed  in  hot  water;  B,  the 
scalded  birds  are  hung  to  drain  before  plucking.  (Photo  by  Oakland  Poultry  Farm.) 

2.  Purpose  for  which  the  birds  are  to  be  used.     Birds  which 
are  to  be  cut  up  and  used  for  stewing  or  for  chicken  pies  can  be 
scalded,  as  the  damage  matters  less  than  when  they  are  wanted 
for  roasting. 

3.  Length  of  time  before  cooking.     When  they  are  to   be 
immediately  cooked,  as  is  the  case  with  birds  for  the  home  table 
or  a  near-by  retail  trade,  there  will  probably  be  no  objection  to 
or  discrimination  against  properly  scalded  birds. 

4.  Market  requirements.     When  to  scald  and  when  to  dry 


.     DRESSING  417 

pick  should  be  determined  largely  by  the  demand  of  the  market 
to  which  the  birds  are  shipped.  If  market  quotations  show  a 
preference  for  dry-picked  birds,  then  dry  picking  should  be  pre- 
ferred to  scalding. 

Plumping  or  Cooling. — As  soon  as  the  birds  are  picked  by 
either  method,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  immerse  them  in  a  tub 
or  pail  of  cold  water  for  at  least  an  hour.  This  accomplishes 
several  objects:  (1)  It  removes  the  animal  heat  from  the  bird, 
making  it  keep  longer  by  retarding  decomposition.  (2)  It  also 
lessens  the  excessive  red  color  of  comb  and  wattles,  and  gives 
them  a  better  appearance.  (3)  The  entrance  of  water  into  the 
pores  makes  the  flesh  plump  and  distends  the  skin. 

Whenever  possible,  dry-picked  birds  should  be  allowed  to 
cool  in  dry  air.  Cold  weather  makes  this  possible  for  all.  In 
summer  it  is  done  by  refrigeration,  but  this  practice  is  limited 
to  large  commercial  establishments.  It  is  well  first  to  immerse 
them  a  few  minutes  in  water  at  about  blood  heat,  then  wash  the 
shanks  and  toes  to  remove  dirt,  take  the  clot  of  blood  from 
the  mouth,  and  wash  all  blood  from  face  and  head.  After 
washing  they  are  usually  immersed  for  one  hour  in  ice  water, 
and  then  hung  up  to  drain  before  packing.  When  killing,  plan 
to  leave  sufficient  time  for  them  to  cool  before  packing  for 
shipment.  In  warm  weather  ice  is  necessary  during  transit,  so 
they  need  not  be  drained.  If  poultry  is  to  be  shipped  a  con- 
siderable distance,  and  is  cooled  down  thoroughly  before  ship- 
ment, the  longer  it  will  stay  cool  and  the  better  will  be  the 
condition  upon  receipt. 

Shaping. — The  process  of  shaping  improves  the  appearance  of 
the  bird  by  forcing  its  breast  forward  and  making  it  look  full  of 
meat.  It  may  be  done  during  cooling  if  the  process  is  refrigeration. 
Although  not  general  in  this  country,  shaping  is  extensively  done 
in  Europe.  The  method  is  to  place  the  birds  in  wooden  frames  or 
V-shaped  troughs  so  that,  when  pressure  is  applied  from  above, 
the  flesh  is  forced  into  the  desired  part  and  stays  there  after 
cooling  and  hardening.  With  good,  well-grown,  plump-breasted 
birds  little  if  any  benefit  is  to  be  derived  from  the  process.  At  best 
it  will  improve  the  appearance  only  of  those  birds  which  are 
naturally  thin  or  not  in  prime  condition  when  killed,  giving  them 
a  more  plump  appearance. 

Dressing. — The  necessity  and  manner  of  dressing  depend 
upon  the  market  and  the  fowl.  When  poultry  is  marketed  through 
27 


418  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

wholesale  channels,  it  should  never  be  drawn  or  cut.  Experiments 
prove  that  undrawn  poultry  decomposes  more  slowly  than  does 
poultry  which  has  been  wholly  or  partly  drawn.  Full-drawn 
poultry — that  is,  with  head  and  feet  removed  as  well — decomposes 
the  more  rapidly.  Drawing  also  mars  the  appearance  of  the  bird 
for  display  in  the  markets,  and  there  is  greater  danger  of  its  be- 
coming fly-blown.  The  work  of  dressing  is  left  to  the  middle 
man  to  perform,  in  accordance  with  the  customer's  requirements. 
When  plucking  for  the  wholesale  market, — for  example,  broilers, 
roasters,  and  fowls, — all  the  feathers  are  removed  except  a  few 
around  the  neck  just  back  of  the  head.  In  the  case  of  capons, 
the  neck,  thigh,  tail,  and  wing  feathers  are  left  on  the  bird.  This 
is  the  characteristic  capon  plucking,  and  distinguishes  them  from 
cockerels,  for  the  feathers  are  left  on  those  parts  which  show  the 
distinctive  feminine  or  capon  plumage.  When  dressing  for  the 
home  table  or  a  restricted  retail  trade,  it  is  usually  desired  that 
the  birds  be  ready  for  cooking,  and  the  following  methods  are 
common  for  broilers  and  roasters. 

In  preparing  broilers  so  they  will  look  attractive  for  a  private 
trade,  they  should  be  carefully  plucked  and  the  legs  and  head  cut 
off.  Then  with  a  heavy  knife  or  cleaver  cut  each  side  of  the 
entire  length  of  the  backbone,  severing  the  ribs.  These  incisions 
should  meet  at  the  neck  and  just  below  the  vent.  It  is  then  pos- 
sible to  remove  the  neck,  backbone,  and  entire  intestines  with  no 
other  cutting.  In  the  case  of  large  broilers  which  are  to  be  halved, 
the  breast  should  also  be  cut  lengthwise  in  the  centre  with  a 
cleaver  or  meat  saw.  The  giblets  should  be  cleaned,  and  accom- 
pany the  dressed  carcass. 

Preparing  roasters. — (Fig.  192)  For  fine  trade  proceed  as  fol- 
lows: Singe  the  bird  after  it  is  cool  and  thoroughly  dry  by  holding 
it  over  a  flame  from  burning  straw.  Be  careful  not  to  blacken 
the  skin;  this  is  why  paper  is  objectionable. 

1.  Remove  the  shanks  and  the  tough  sinews  which  extend 
through  the  legs  and  impair  the  quality  of  the  drumstick.     To 
remove  these  sinews  run  a  knife  down  the  back  of  the  shank  bone, 
between  it  and  the  sinews.     Place  this  cut  over  a  hook  or  big 
nail  and  pull  gradually;  in  large  old  birds  it  may  be  necessary  to 
place  the  hook  under  each  sinew,  one  at  a  time.    The  sinew  will 
break  at  the  upper  end,  and  can  then  be  removed  with  the  shank, 
leaving  the  thigh  free. 

2.  Pull  the  skin  of  the  neck  toward  the  body  and  sever  the 


DRESSING  419 

neck  with  a  sharp  cleaver  about  midway  between  head  and  body. 
Thus,  when  the  skin  is  released,  about  one  inch  of  free  neck  skin 
will  remain,  to  cover  the  cut  bone. 

3.  Make  a  cut  about  two  inches  long  at  the  left  side  of  the 
breast  well  up  toward  the  neck,  and  remove  the  crop,  being  care- 
ful not  to  increase  the  size  of  the  opening. 

4.  Turn  the  bird  with  the  tail  toward  the  operator  and  make 
a  longitudinal  cut  about  two  inches  in  length  from  the  vent 
toward  the  point  of  the  breastbone.     Insert  the  forefinger  and 
remove  the  tissue  and  fat  which  cover  the  intestines.    When  they 


FIG.  192. — Roasters  properly  dressed  £0r  retail  trade.    (Photo  by  U.  R.  Fishel.) 

are  fully  exposed,  hook  the  finger  into  a  loop  of  the  intestines, 
and  cautiously  pull  them  out,  taking  care  not  to  injure  any  part. 
When  they  are  all  removed,  make  a  circular  cut  around  the  vent, 
and  remove  it  with  the  intestines. 

V5.  Next  remove  all  internal  organs,  such  as  the  gizzard,  liver, 
heart,  lungs,  spleen,  and  reproductive  organs,  taking  care  not  to 
enlarge  the  opening. 

6.  Next  wash  the  bird  thoroughly  with  warm  water  followed 
by  cold  water. 

7.  Open  gizzard  and  heart,  wash  thoroughly,  and,  with  the 
liver,  replace  in  the  body  cavity. 

8.  Take  clean  white  cotton  string  and  tie  the  skin  of  the  neck 
over  the  end  of  the  neck. 

9.  Lay  the  wings  flat,  and  secure  them  to  the  sides  by  a  string 


420  FATTENING,  KILLING,  AND  DRESSING 

passed  twice  around  the  whole  body,  then  fasten;  this  holds  them 
secure  while  cooking. 

10.  Tie  a  piece  of  string  around  the  hock  joints,  leaving  them 
about  two  inches  apart,  one  on  each  side  of  the  keel;  then  bring 
them  down,  and  fasten  securely  to  the  tail. 

11.  If  desired,  immerse  the  bird  in  clear  cold  water  for  one 
hour;  this  will  set  the  muscles  firmly.    After  draining  and  drying 
the  bird  is  ready  for  the  customer. 

Fowls  are  usually  cut  up  for  stews  or  mea,t  pies,  but  this  work 
is  rarely  done  by  the  producer. 

Boning. — It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  dress  an  extra  fancy 
product  which  retails  for  an  exceptionally  high  price.  In  such 
cases  it  is  customary  to  remove  all  or  most  of  the  bones  from  the 
fowl  through  an  opening  in  front  of  the  shoulder.  The  flesh  is 
afterward  stuffed  and  roasted  like  an  ordinary  roaster;  but  when 
serving  one  can  cut  right  through  the  entire  bird,  and  get  light 
and  dark  meat  and  dressing  at  one  cut.  This  process  is  termed 
"  boning,"  is  rather  difficult,  and  can  only  be  successfully  done 
after  considerable  practice. 


REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  fattening? 

2.  Give  three  methods  of  fattening. 

3.  What  is  flock  fattening,  and  when  is  it  used? 

4.  What  is  crate  fattening? 

5.  To  what  extent  is  crate  fattening  employed? 

6.  Describe  a  desirable  fattening  crate. 

7.  Discuss  in  detail  methods  employed  in  commercial  crate  fattening. 

8.  What  is  cramming?    Give  three  methods. 

9.  Discuss  cramming  as  practised  in  America. 

10.  What  is  the  object  in  forced  feeding?    Give  essentials. 

11.  How  does  proper  killing  affect  the  quality? 

12.  Why  should  the  bird  be  starved  before  killing? 

13.  Give  three  methods  of  killing. 

14.  How  is  the  neck  dislocated? 

15.  Describe  the  process  of  sticking. 

16.  Describe  a  desirable  type  of  killing  knife. 

17.  Describe  a  good  method  of  suspending  before  killing. 

18.  Describe  a  good  method  of  beheading. 

19.  Give  two  methods  of  plucking. 

20.  Give  the  advantages  of  dry  picking. 

21.  Describe  the  procedure  in  dry  picking. 

22.  Describe  the  process  of  scalding  poultry. 

23.  What  four  factors  should  determine  whether  to  dry  pick  or  scald? 


REVIEW  421 

24.  What  is  the  object  of  cooling? 

25.  How  can  the  birds  be  shaped? 

26.  Describe  two  methods  of  dressing  broilers  for  retail  or  home  trade. 

27.  Describe  the  dressing  of  a  roaster  for  retail  trade. 

References. — Fattening  Poultry,  by  Alfred  R.  Lee,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  Bulletin  140.  How  to  Kill  and  Bleed  Market  Poultry,  by  Pennington 
and  Betts,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Chemistry  Circular  61.  The  Comparative  Rate 
of  Decomposition  in  Drawn  and  Undrawn  Market  Poultry,  by  M.  E.  Penning- 
ton, U.  S.  Bureau  of  Chemistry  Circular  70.  Practical  Suggestions  for  the 
Preparation  of  Frozen  and  Dried  Eggs,  by  M.  E.  Pennington,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Chemistry  Circular  98.  Trussing  and  Boning  Chicken  for  Fancy  Trade, 
by  Wm.  A.  Lippincott,  Iowa  Bulletin  125. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS. 

THE  successful  poultryman  must  not  only  produce  first-class 
poultry  products,  but  he  must  be  a  capable  salesman  and  man  of 
business  as  well.  The  maximum  number  of  eggs  may  be  produced 
during  the  winter;  but  unless  the  poultryman  understands  busi- 
ness principles  and  market  requirements,  big  profits  cannot  be 
realized.  Whatever  increases  or  decreases  the  ultimate  selling 
value  to  the  producer  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

The  Salesman. — When  poultry  raising  is  conducted  on  a 
limited  scale,  the  poultryman  himself  is  both  producer  and  sales- 
man; if,  however,  the  business  is  large  and  there  is  a  group  of  poul- 
try raisers  in  a  community,  they  may  be  able  to  cooperate  in 
marketing  with  good  results.  In  such  case  if  an  expert  salesman 
is  allowed  to  handle  the  market  end  of  the  business,  he  will  dis- 
pose of  the  products  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  the  largest  returns 
for  the  producer  and  at  the  same  time  increase  the  demand.  The 
successful  salesman  must,  nevertheless,  have  some  experience  in 
poultry  production,  for  this  makes  him  a  better  and  more  intelli- 
gent seller.  A  good  salesman  must  know  how  to  advertise,  if  he  is 
advantageously  to  dispose  of  a  variety  of  products  offered  for  sale. 
He  must  drive  a  good  bargain  and  be  shrewd  yet  honest  in  all  his 
dealings,  if  he  is  to  retain  the  confidence  of  his  best  customers. 

For  the  small  poultryman,  and  especially  the  farm  poultryman, 
the  most  important  requisite  is  that  he  keep  accurately  posted  as 
to  market  prices,  fluctuations,  and  conditions.  The  easiest  way  to 
increase  an  income  without  greatly  increasing  expenses  is  to  add  to 
the  profits  by  raising  products  of  high  quality,  and  marketing  them 
at  the  right  time  and  place  in  a  neat  and  attractive  manner. 

The  Markets. — The  expense  of  marketing  poultry  products  is 
comparatively  small,  as  they  are  of  high  value,  small  in  bulk, 
and  can  be  shipped  a  considerable  distance  with  little  shrinkage. 
The  high-class  trade  in  the  large  cities  is  the  most  profitable,  and, 
where  one  can  ship  a  guaranteed  quantity  during  the  entire  year, 
or  the  season,  of  such  product  as  broilers,  he  can  safely  compete  in 
this  market,  but  where  his  output  is  limited  it  is  a  waste  of  time. 
There  is  often  a  home  market  which,  with  a  little  care,  can  be 
422 


THE  MARKETS  423 

developed  satisfactorily  and  will  pay  the  small  producer  much 
better  than  the  larger  city  trade. 

A  great  variety  of  markets  are  open  to  the  poultryman,  and, 
according  to  his  location  and  production,  he  may  choose  any  one 
of  the  following  methods:  (1)  Selling  direct  to  the  consumer;  (2) 
selling  direct  to  the  retailer;  (3)  shipping  to  commission  merchants. 

Selling  direct  to  the  consumer  insures  the  largest  revenue,  as 
all  expense  of  commission  and  extra  handling  is  eliminated.  This 
market  is  usually  limited,  unless  one  lives  near  a  small  city  or 
village,  in  which  case  he  can  generally  build  up  a  retail  route 
which  will  take  his  entire  output.  A  disadvantage  is  the  amount 
of  time  consumed  in  taking  orders  and  distributing.  To  determine 
whether  or  not  this  method  pays  best,  the  time  spent  in  dis- 
tribution should  be  balanced  against  the  lower  price  and  extra 
expense  of  commission  when  shipping  by  the  third  method,  the 
cost  of  production  being  in  each  case  the  same. 

The  most  satisfactory  way  of  selling  direct  to  consumers  is 
to  supply  hotels,  restaurants,  and  clubs,  as  they  usually  contract 
for  the  entire  output  and  are  willing  to  pay  a  good  price,  and  it 
is  much  easier  to  ship  the  entire  output  to  one  place  at  certain 
specified  times  than  to  spend  time  and  labor  in  disposing  of  it 
among  many  small  consumers.  This  last  method  offers  an  ex- 
cellent chance  of  advertising, — an  advantage  to  both  the  poultry- 
man and  the  purchaser  of  the  products. 

Selling  Direct  to  Retailer. — Often  one  can  sell  both  eggs  and 
dressed  poultry  direct  to  some  retail  grocer,  \vho  is  glad  to  get 
them  and  to  pay  a  good  price.  Knowing  they  are  perfectly  fresh, 
he  can  sell  them  to  his  high-class  trade  and  develop  a  good  mar- 
ket for  the  poultryman.  It  may  be  necessary  to  go  to  a  distant 
city  or  distribution  point  to  find  his  market,  but  it  will  always 
pay  when  once  secured. 

Shipping  to  Commission  Merchants. — The  easiest  and  simplest 
way  in  which  to  dispose  of  the  bulk  of  poultry  products  is  through 
the  commission  merchant  for  sale  in  the  open  market.  In  iso- 
lated cases  the  merchant  can  perhaps  secure  a  special  market 
for  a  guaranteed  product,  and  this  is  becoming  easier  each  year. 
But  by  this  method  the  cost  of  marketing  is  very  high  and  the 
price  realized  is  the  lowest.  The  commission,  transportation, 
cartage,  and,  in  most  cases,  loss  by  breakage,  are  always  charged 
to  the  shipper.  The  commission  usually  amounts  to  five  per 
cent  of  the  gross  receipts. 


424  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

If  one  has  a  large  output  and  can  ship  through  a  commission 
house  which  makes  a  specialty  of  high-grade  products,  he  can 
usually  secure  prices  much  above  the  market  quotations, — pro- 
vided his  shipments  are  always  regular  and  of  high  quality.  Most 
commission  houses  are  on  the  alert  for  such  products  and  will 
give  the  shipper  the  best  of  service. 

The  exact  market  to  select  depends,  then,  upon  the  amount 
and  character  of  products  for  sale.  The  wholesale  market  is  best 
adapted  to  poultry  enterprises  with  a  large  and  regular  output, 
which  are  located  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  point  of 
distribution  and  consumption.  The  retail  trade,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  especially  suitable  for  the  poultryman  with  a  limited 
supply  of  good  products.  He  can  create  a  strong  demand  for  these 
products  at  such  a  price  as  to  yield  a  profit  on  his  output. 

Relative  Returns. — Receipts  and  net  profit  are  always  much 
higher  when  the  products  are  sold  direct  to  the  consumer,  although 
the  aggregate  profits  may  not  be  great,  owing  to  the  limited  de- 
mand, hence  limited  sales. 

Returns,  hence  net  profits,  are  lowest  when  the  products 
are  sold  at  wholesale  through  commission  houses;  but,  owing  to 
the  great  demand,  there  is  more  chance  of  a  high  total  profit, 
provided  the  shipments  are  large.  The  sale  of  products  directly 
to  the  retail  store  probably  nets  the  highest  selling  price  and  the 
largest  revenue  in  proportion  to  the  labor  required  in  packing 
and  distribution. 

Where  the  producer  can  make  a  contract  with  prominent  and 
reliable  retail  stores  for  a  fine  product,  the  demand  for  his  goods 
among  the  patrons  of  that  store,  if  in  a  large  consuming  centre, 
will  become  almost  limitless.  This  mode  of  marketing  cuts  out 
two  of  the  middle  men  through  whose  hands  most  products  sold 
at  wholesale  must  pass,  hence  yields  greater  profit  to  the  pro- 
ducer and  seller,  and  the  product  reaches  the  consumer  more 
quickly  and  in  better  condition. 

The  following  prices  show  the  average  received  for  eggs  mark- 
eted through  the  common  channels  of  trade  and  by  direct  selling. 
These  prices  are  merely  comparative: 

Huckster 20  cents,  trade. 

Grocer 23  cents,  trade. 

Wholesale  buyer 21  cents,  cash. 

Retail  trade 27  cents,  cash. 

Fancy  trade 30  cents,  cash. 


FROM  PRODUCER  TO  CONSUMER 


425 


It  is  difficult  to  realize  that,  with  a  small  or  medium-sized 
flock,  a  slightly  increased  selling  price  for  eggs  per  dozen  through- 
out the  year  will  result  in  a  very  decided  total  profit.  For  example, 
150  hens  laying  1,800  dozens  of  eggs,  selling  at  18  cents  per  dozen, 
will  produce  an  additional  profit  of  $36  when  the  selling  price  of 
each  dozen  is  increased  only  two  cents. 


WHOLE3AJZE    ROUTE 


RETAIL   ROUTS 


\JOSSER  [ 


1  RETAIL  I 
STORE    I 


CON-SU1VER 


FIG.  193. — Chart  showing  the  courses  through  which  eggs  may  pass  in  going  from  the 
producer  to  the  consumer.  A,  The  course  taken  by  the  great  bulk  of  the  "western"  product 
in  reaching  the  eastern  markets;  B,  the  course  taken  by  the  eastern  output  in  reaching  New 
York  and  other  large  centres  of  distribution;  C,  direct  selling  through  the  retail  store;  D, 
the  hotel  and  restaurant  trade;  E,  products  going  direct  from  producer  to  consumer. 

From  Producer  to  Consumer. — It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
many  channels  of  trade  and  the  great  number  of  hands  through 
which  every  shipment  may  and  usually  does  pass  before  it 
reaches  the  consumer.  Figure  193  is  a  diagram  portraying  the 
different  courses  which  poultry  products  may  take. 


426  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

The  doing  away  with  much  of  this  unnecessary  handling  will 
reduce  the  ultimate  cost  of  the  product  for  the  consumer,  and  the 
quality  at  point  of  consumption  will  be  better. 

Customers'  Interests. — To  do  justice  to  both,  a  good  sales- 
man must  take  the  viewpoint  of  the  consumer  as  well  as  that  of 
the  producer;  and,  in  order  to  do  this,  customers  may  be  arbi- 
trarily divided  into  five  well-defined  classes,  according  to  their 
financial  standing,  as  follows:  (1)  Poor,  (2)  of  moderate  means, 
(3)  high  class,  (4)  wealthy,  (5)  hotels  and  restaurants. 

It  is  evident  at  a  glance  that  the  quality  of  products  demanded 
by  these  five  classes  will  vary  considerably.  The  well-to-do  con- 
sumer demands  and  is  willing  to  pay  for  a  high-class  product, 
whereas  the  poorer  customer  with  limited  means  will  purchase 
a  lower  quality  for  less  money.  The  poorer  customer  purchases 
but  a  small  amount,  while  the  higher  class  of  trade  will  buy  a 
much  larger  quantity. 

There  is  a  marked  variation  according  to  the  season,  the 
poorer  classes  demanding  products  at  the  season  of  abundant 
supply  when  the  prices  are  correspondingly  low,  while  the  wealthier 
classes  and  hotel  trade  will  demand  and  gladly  pay  a  higher  price 
for  a  product  out  of  its  natural  season. 

All  customers,  regardless  of  their  financial  standing,  have 
the  same  personal  interest  at  heart,  and  are  governed  by  the 
same  thought  when  purchasing, — namely,  to  get  the  largest 
possible  quantity  of  the  best  quality  of  product  available  for 
the  money,  These  interests  may  be  classified  under  the  follow- 
ing six  headings: 

Quality,  price,  supply,  accessibility,  systematic  delivery,  re- 
sponsibility of  salesman. 

Quality  is  the  first  requisite,  and  may  be  estimated  by  the 
following  factors:  Freshness,  whether  in  dressed  poultry  or  eggs; 
care  in  handling,  from  producer  to  point  of  consumption;  whole- 
someness,  which  means  absence  of  any  taint;  type  of  egg  as  to 
size  and  color;  weight,  whether  of  eggs  or  meat;  method  of  pro- 
duction; price,  in  so  far  as  it  represents  quality. 

Price. — Price  is  a  consideration  with  all  classes,  but  the  actual 
purchasing  power  of  money  is  estimated  differently  by  these 
different  groups,  according  to  the  amount  on  hand  for  their  pur- 
pose. To  the  producer,  the  price  depends  upon  variations  in 
quality;  shortage  or  abundance;  competition,  both  in  selling  and 
buying;  the  middle  man's  profits,  which  vary  according  to  the 


CUSTOMERS'  INTERESTS  427 

number  of  hands  through  which  the  product  has  passed;  cost  of 
production;  and  cost  of  handling,  which  varies  with  the  market 
and  manner  of  fitting  for  market. 

Supply. — In  many  ways  the  supply  of  poultry  products  in 
various  markets  is  affected  by  the  following:  Quality;  the  higher 
the  quality  the  less  the  supply;  variations  in  amount  of  products, 
such  as  eggs,  being  produced  in  great  numbers,  while  with  capons 
and  turkeys,  for  example,  the  production  is  very  limited.  The 
source  of  supply  very  often  affects  the  amount  of  a  given  product 
in  certain  markets  according  to  the  distance  from  place  of  pro- 
duction and  size  of  producing  plant.  The  amount  of  capital  in- 
vested in  production  and  distribution  affects  the  total  supply, 
especially  during  seasons  of  limited  output.  The  extent  to  which 
business  is  carried  on  in  a  community  determines  largely  the 
available  supply  of  products  handled. 

Accessibility. — This  is  one  of  the  chief  factors  from  the  con- 
sumer's standpoint,  for  if  large  quantities  of  first-class  products 
are  in  the  vicinity,  yet  not  readily  accessible,  they  are  of  no  value. 
Distance  from  point  of  consumption,  proximity  of  reserve  sup- 
plies, telephone  and  railroad  connections,  mail  facilities, — all 
play  an  important  part  in  bringing  producer,  middle  man,  and 
consumer  closer  together. 

Systematic  Delivery. — The  customer  desires  regular  and  sys- 
tematic supply,  whether  it  be  eggs  or  dressed  poultry,  and  this 
supply  is  affected  by  the  location  of  the  distributing  point, 
express  rates,  method  and  regularity  of  final  delivery  to  cus- 
tomer. The  exact  method  of  delivery  varies  according  to  the 
customer. 

Responsibility  of  Salesman. — The  ultimate  seller  has  the  re- 
sponsibility of  delivering  goods  to  the  consumer  that  will  be 
satisfactory  and  thus  keep  up  the  demand  for  these  goods.  His 
ability  to  please  the  customer  will  depend  largely  on  his  distance 
from  the  consumer,  his  business  methods,  care  in  filling  orders, 
financial  standing,  acquaintance  with  customers,  and  amount  of 
business  handled. 

The  consumer  is  a  valuable  partner  in  a  profitable  poultry 
trade,  and  the  salesman  who  caters  to  the  interests  of  the  con- 
sumer will  not  only  increase  the  demand  for  his  products,  but  can 
demand — and  will  be  gladly  paid  by  the  customer — a  price  so 
much  higher  that  it  will  more  than  cover  the  time  and  expense 
involved. 


428  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 


TRADE  IN  EGGS  FOR  HATCHING. 

Eggs  are  marketed  for  two  purposes, — for  human  food  and 
for  hatching.  When  marketing  them  for  breeding  purposes  four 
important  points  must  be  considered, — namely,  securing  the  mar- 
ket, method  of  shipping,  chance  of  fertility,  and  value  of  guarantee. 

Securing  the  Market. — If  a  large  number  are  to  be  sold, 
the  market  is  usually  secured  by  systematic  advertising.  Where 
the  breeder  has  an  established  reputation,  which  his  birds  have 
maintained  for  years  by  winning  prizes  at  shows,  and  there 
are  pleased  customers  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  there  is  little 
need  of  advertising.  High-class  eggs  for  breeding  purposes  call 
for  special  markets  and  enormous  expense  in  marketing.  The 
output  must  be  disposed  of  by  making  a  great  many  small  ship- 
ments to  many  customers.  In  marketing  eggs  for  food  all  the 
output,  if  desired,  can  be  shipped  regularly  and  in  considerable 
quantity  to  the  same  customer.  To  counterbalance  the  labor 
and  heavy  expense  of  marketing  eggs  for  breeding  purposes,  an 
exceedingly  high  price  is  usually  received  for  such  eggs. 

Method  of  Shipping. — In  shipping  eggs  for  hatching,  chill- 
ing or  overheating  must  be  avoided,  also  breaking  or  unnecessary 
jarring.  The  usual  method  is  to  pack  them  in  ordinary  market 
baskets,  pasteboard  containers  being  first  put  in  the  basket;  after 
the  eggs  are  placed  in  these,  the  whole  layer  is  filled  with  bran 
or  dry  sawdust  to  prevent  jarring  or  cracking.  Eggs  thus  packed 
are  much  more  likely  to  reach  their  destination  safely  than  when 
they  are  shipped  in  heavy  and  tight  wooden  boxes,  in  which 
case  the  handler  is  ignorant  of  the  contents  and  takes  no  extra 
precautions. 

Express  companies  charge  an  extra  rate  for  handling  eggs  for 
hatching,  hence  are  expected  to  give  them  unusual  care.  The 
package,  of  whatever  type,  should  be  plainly  marked,  stating 
the  nature  of  the  contents  and  the  danger  of  breakage.  During 
extremely  cold  weather  when  there  is  danger  of  chilling,  it  is  advis- 
able to  wrap  each  egg  in  paper  before  putting  it  in  the  container. 

Chance  of  Fertility. — Since  the  hatching  egg  has  no  value 
unless  fertile,  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  during  the 
selling  season  not  only  to  produce  fertile  eggs,  but  to  handle 
them  so  that  the  germ  will  be  kept  alive  and  will  develop  into  a 
vigorous  chick.  The  percentage  of  fertility  varies  considerably 
in  different  seasons,  being  highest  during  the  natural  hatching 


MARKETING  EGGS  FOR  HUMAN  FOOD  429 

season  in  the  spring  and  lowest  during  the  coldest  winter  months. 
Nothing  will  so  soon  disgust  the  purchaser  of  hatching  eggs,  or 
make  him  more  quickly  seek  a  new  source  of  supply,  than  a  low 
percentage  of  fertility;  hence,  the  great  effort  made  to  secure 
the  highest  fertility. 

Value  of  Guarantee. — When  an  order  is  taken  for  eggs,  some 
definite  guarantee  is  usually  given  with  them,  especially  stating 
the  breed  and  the  degree  of  development  toward  a  standard,  as 
well  as  the  percentage  of  fertility.  If  the  breeder  wishes  to  satisfy 
his  customer  and  to  retain  his  trade  in  future  years,  this  guaran- 
tee must  be  given  in  good  faith.  As  a  rule,  a  fertility  of  at  least 
eighty  per  cent  is  guaranteed,  as  well  as  the  replacing  of  all 
eggs  below  this  percentage  which  prove  to  be  deficient.  When 
eggs  from  advertised  show  matings  are  sold,  the  resulting  progeny 
are  expected  to  show,  and  should  show,  the  desired  characteristics. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sale  is  advertised  as  being  from 
utility  matings,  the  purchaser  will  not,  and  can  not,  expect  exhibi- 
tion progeny.  The  keeping  of  a  guarantee  means  the  satisfaction 
of  customers,  and  this  is  the  best  possible  kind  of  advertising. 

MARKETING  EGGS  FOR  HUMAN  FOOD. 

The  great  mass  of  eggs  produced  on  the  majority  of  farms,  as 
well  as  the  surplus  supply  from  fancy  plants,  is  used  at  home  or 
sold  for  food.  The  principles  and  methods  of  marketing  are  of 
practical  importance.  The  egg  is  the  backbone  of  commercial 
poultry  craft,  and  the  production  of  meat  secondary. 

Prices  and  their  Variation. — The  price  of  eggs  for  food  is 
governed  by  fluctuations  in  demand  and  supply,  especially  the 
latter.  There  is  always  a  brisk  call  for  strictly  fresh  eggs,  but 
the  variations  noted  are  due  largely  to  the  effect  on  supply  caused 
by  changes  of  season.  Prices  for  poultry  products  in  general,  and 
especially  eggs,  are  peculiar,  in  that  they  differ  but  slightly  in 
the  same  season  year  after  year. 

The  diagram  (Fig.  194)  shows  the  range  in  prices  of  eggs  in 
a  period  of  twenty-five  years.  The  heavy  line  represents  changes 
in  temperature.  It  will  be  seen  that  eggs  bring  the  highest  prices 
each  year  during  January,  November,  and  December,  and  the 
lowest  price  during  May.  The  same  is  true  of  the  various  classes 
of  meat;  and  if  the  poultryman  aims  at  big  profits  from  his  pro- 
duction, he  must  market  it  at  that  season  when  the  price  is  sure 


430 


MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 


to  be  the  highest.    With  some  products  it  is  practically  impossible 
to  make  any  profit  out  of  season. 

Ultimate  Price  Regulation. — The  New  York  markets  for  eggs 
and  dressed  poultry,  owing  to  the  vast  quantities  received,  fix, 
in  greater  or  less  degree,  the  price  of  these  products  in  a  large 
part  of  the  country.  The  general  public,  and  rural  communities 
especially,  know  very  little  about  the  regulation  of  these  prices. 


1885 

/Q90 
/90O 
/9/0 


COLD 


ffOT 


COLD 


FIG.  194.— Curves  showing  the  relation  of  temperature  to  the  selling  price  of  eggs. 
The  heavy  black  line  represents  temperature,  and  the  light  lines  variation  in  wholesale 
prices  for  market  eggs  for  four  years,  from  1885  to  1910. 

Small  egg  shippers  all  over  the  country  speak  of  the  "  market 
price  "  without  knowing  how  or  where  it  originates. 

The  Mercantile  Exchange  of  New  York  City  has  a  membership 
of  several  hundred  men,  all  of  whom  are  interested  in  the  buying 
and  selling  of  poultry  and  dairy  products  (Fig.  195).  Membership 
is  quite  exclusive,  and  only  men  of  sound  financial  standing  and 
good  business  reputation  are  invited  to  join.  Here  at  ten  o'clock 
every  business  day  the  members  gather  to  buy  and  sell  these  pro- 
ducts in  quantity.  From  the  business  here  transacted,  the  dealers 


MARKETING  EGGS  FOR  HUMAN  FOOD 


431 


get  a  very  accurate  idea  of  the  ratio  between  immediate  supply 
and  existing  demand.  The  prices  which  prevail  at  these  sales 
are  accepted  by  the  dealers  as  a  guide  for  that  day.  The  dealers 
hold  that  some  such  basis  as  this  is  absolutely  necessary.  They 
say  that,  without  some  fixed  standard,  speculation  would  be 
heavily  indulged  in,  and  the  handling  and  storage  of  eggs  would 
be  essentially  a  gamble. 


FIG.   195. — Interior  view  of  the  Mercantile  Exchange,  New  York  City. 

The  storage  of  eggs  in  the  mammoth  cold-storage  houses  in 
large  cities  has  become  a  controlling  factor  in  fixing  the  price 
of  poultry  products.  Eggs  are  bought  in  the  Western  States 
during  the  early  spring  when  the  supply  is  abundant  and  the 
prices  low.  They  are  perfectly  stored  at  a  temperature  of  about 
30  degrees  for  several  months.  This  wholesale  buying  in  the 
flush  of  the  season  tends  largely  to  keep  the  price  from  going  any 
lower.  In  the  late  fall  and  winter,  when  fresh  eggs  become  scarce, 
storage  supplies  are  drawn  upon  to  furnish  eggs  which,  although 
not  fresh,  serve  the  purpose  fairly  well,  and  place  this  fine  food 
product  within  the  reach  of  almost  everybody. 


432  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

No  doubt  there  is  much  speculation  in  the  business;  yet  this 
occurs  in  all  branches  of  commerce.  There  are  hundreds  of  sharp- 
ers who  make  a  living  by  sending  out  cards  offering  attractive 
prices  or  false  quotations  to  shippers;  they  scour  the  express 
offices  and  hang  around  delivery  wagons,  getting  the  names  and 
addresses  of  the  shippers.  Such  is  human  nature.  Many  of  the 
shippers  who  receive  these  false  quotations  immediately  send 
their  next  consignment  to  these  "  pikers,"  as  they  are  called. 
Not  until  the  lapse  of  weeks  with  no  returns  do  they  realize  their 
mistake  in  not  looking  up  the  standing  and  reputation  of  the 
consignees  before  giving  them  the  goods.  (See  New  Jersey  Sta- 
tion Report,  1911.) 

Points  in  Collecting. — The  method  of  handling  market  eggs 
has  much  to  do  with  their  ultimate  selling  price,  and  the  system 
and  manner  of  collecting  is  of  vital  importance.  Clean  houses 
help  to  keep  the  birds  in  healthy  condition,  just  as  a  clean  nest 
will  help  to  keep  the  eggs  in  good  state.  Nests  for  laying  should 
always  be  clean,  for  nesting  material  is  cheap,  and  it  is  much 
easier  to  change  it  occasionally  than  to  cleanse  the  eggs.  Washed 
eggs  spoil  more  quickly;  therefore  they  should  be  cleaned  by  dry 
brushing  with  a  stiff-bristled  brush.  The  eggs  should  be  collected 
regularly,  once,  or,  if  a  special  fancy  product,  twice  a  day.  A 
covered  pail  with  strong  handle  is  the  best  receptacle  for  them,  as  it 
holds  a  large  number,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  crushing  them,  as 
there  might  be  in  a  basket,  the  weight  making  it  sag  at  the  sides. 

Selecting  and  Grading. — There  should  be  a  regular  system  of 
selecting  and  grading  eggs,  to  insure  uniformity  and  high  quality. 
Before  discussing  the  principles  of  grading,  some  understanding 
of  commercial  grades  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  importance  of 
home  grading.  The  general  classification  of  eggs  in  all  large 
markets  is  as  follows :  Extra  hennery  white ;  extra  hennery  brown ; 
first  hennery  white;  first  hennery  brown;  first  hennery  mixed; 
seconds;  thirds;  dirties. 

The  extras  must  all  be  of  large  and  uniform  size,  perfectly 
clean,  with  chalk-white  shells,  not  tinted  in  the  least,  and  only 
a  few  days  old.  The  firsts  must  be  clean  and  of  uniform  color, 
but  need  not  run  quite  so  large.  The  seconds  are  smaller  or  of 
varying  size,  and  the  thirds  stili  smaller.  Fresh  eggs  are  often 
sold  for  half  price  because  they  are  dirty. 

Large  wholesale  markets  classify  according  to  degree  of  fresh- 
ness. This  classification,  given  below,  was  evolved  by  the  egg 


MARKETING  EGGS  FOR  HUMAN  FOOD  433 

committee  of  the  Mercantile  Exchange,  which  committee  is 
appointed  by  the  president.  The  sliding  scale  was  devised  in  order 
to  meet  the  variations  in  the  price  of  eggs  during  different  sea- 
sons, and  to  permit  the  practical  adjustment  of  these  fluctuations. 
This  classification  is,  of  course,  not  ideal,  but  it  is  a  practical 
one,  designed  to  meet  the  conditions  in  a  market,  not  as  -they 
ought  to  be,  or  as  they  would  be  under  ideal  conditions,  but 
as  they  actually  are.  In  speaking  of  a  best  egg  we  cannot  have  in 
mind  the  best  egg  for  the  whole  year,  but  the  best  one  possible  at 
the  particular  time  in  question.  This  sliding  scale  becomes  espe- 
cially valuable  in  those  seasons  when  an  absolutely  good,  fresh, 
clean  egg  is  not  obtainable.  At  such  times,  with  a  system  as  out- 
lined above,  the  whole  classification  slides  to  a  lower  scale,  as 
shown  by  the  A,  B,  C  of  the  classification.  With  a  reliable  com- 
mittee, this  shifting  of  the  scale  will  only  be  to  a  reasonable  extent, 
and  should  be  a  benefit  to  all. 

1 .  "  Eggs  shall  be  classified  as '  fresh-gathered , ' '  held, ' '  refrigerator, '  and  '  limed . ' 

2.  "There  shall  be  grades  of  'extras,'  'extra  firsts/  'firsts,'  'seconds,'  'thirds,' 

'Nos.  1  and  2  dirties,'  and  'checks.' 

3.  "Fresh-gathered  extras  shall  be  free  from  dirt,  of  good  uniform  size,  reason- 

ably fresh,  sweet  eggs,  with  full,  strong  bodies,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
egg  committee,  as  follows:  A,  90  per  cent ;  B,  80  per  cent;  C,  65  per  cent. 

4.  "Fresh-gathered  firsts  (or  extra  firsts)  shall  be  reasonably  clean  and  of 

good  average  size,  and  shall  be  reasonably  fresh  and  full,  strong-bodied, 
sweet  eggs,  at  the  discretion  of  the  egg  committee,  as  follows:  A,  75 
per  cent;  B,  65  per  cent;  C,  50  per  cent;  D,  40  per  cent. 

5.  "Fresh-gathered  seconds  shall  be  reasonably  clean,  of  fair  average  size, 

and  shall  be  reasonably  fresh  and  full  eggs,  at  the  discretion  of  the  egg 
committee,  as  follows:  A,  65  per  cent;  C,  40  per  cent;  D,  30  per  cent." 

The  following  classification  of  fresh  eggs  shows  the  compara- 
tive prices  paid  for  different  grades  of  eggs  in  the  New  York 
market,  according  to  size  and  color  (Fig.  196) : 

Whites:  Large,  27  ounces  and  above 40  cents 

Medium,  21  to  27  ounces 38  cents 

Small,  18  to  27  ounces 30  cents 

Culls,  under  18  ounces 20  cents 

Browns:  Large,  27  ounces  and  above 32  cents 

Medium,  21  to  27  ounces 30  cents 

Small,  18  to  21  ounces 25  cents 

Culls,  under  18  ounces 20  cents 

Mixed:  Large,  27  ounces  and  above 31  cents 

Medium,  21  to  27  ounces 28  cents 

Small,  18  to  21  ounces 24  cents 

Culls,  under  18  ounces 20  cents 

28 


434  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

The  above  prices  were  those  in  effect  for  first-class,  strictly 
fresh  eggs,  on  the  first  of  October,  1912,  but  the  same  relation 
might  be  expected  on  any  other  date. 

In  the  Boston  market  the  whites  and  browns  would  exchange 
places  with  regard  to  demand  and  price,  the  browns  being 
worth  more. 

After  studying  these  commercial  classifications,  the  follow- 
ing grouping  of  the  principles  of  grading  will  emphasize  their 
value.  Uniformity  is  the  main  thing,  and  eggs  must  be  so  graded 
that  there  will  be  uniformity  as  to  cleanliness,  size,  and  color. 

No  dirty  eggs  should  be  shipped  to  market,  for  they  lower 
the  selling  price  of  the  whole  shipment,  and  the  poultryman's 


^10.    196.— Egg  grading   table  in   use.      Grading   of  eggs   according  to  size  and  color,  at 
home,  brings  better  returns. 

standing  suffers.  Careful  grading  of  eggs  according  to  size  always 
pays;  those  abnormally  large  or  small  should  be  consumed  at 
home.  An  extremely  large  egg  placed  with  a  dozen  of  uniform 
and  average  size  will  lower  the  selling  price,  as  it  tends  to  make 
the  normal  egg  look  small. 

Where  eggs  of  different  colors  are  produced,  a  careful  match- 
ing as  to  color  will  pay  in  most  markets.  White  and  brown  should 
not  be  shipped  in  the  same  case,  as  there  is  a  higher  price  for  one 
color.  New  York  always  pays  a  premium  for  white-shelled  eggs, 
Boston  for  brown-shelled  ones,  Philadelphia  has  little  preference 
but  demands  uniformity,  and  Chicago  and  San  Francisco  manifest 
no  decided  partiality. 

In  marketing  experiments  carried  on  by  the  New  Jersey  Sta- 
tion, there  was  a  difference  of  two  to  seven  cents  per  dozen  in 
favor  of  white-shelled  eggs  over  mixed.  During  February  the 


MARKETING  EGGS   FOR  HUMAN  FOOD  435 

greatest  difference  was  apparent;  at  that  time  assorted  eggs  by 
the  case,  guaranteed,  brought  the  following  prices  in  the  open 
market:  Whites,  34  cents;  browns,  30  cents;  mixed  brown  and 
white,  27  cents.  The  average  increase  in  the  selling  price  of  the 
white  eggs  over  the  mixed  ones  was  three  and  one-quarter  cents 
per  dozen. 

If  the  eggs  are  cleaned  and  graded,  the  work  must  be  done — 
and  the  crating  and  packing  as  well — at  a  regular  time,  and 
always  with  the  same  care. 

Care  in  Packing. — The  regulation  egg  case  of  thirty-dozen 
capacity  is  the  most  economical  shipping  case  for  a  wholesale 
trade;  but  it  should  be  substantially  made.  If  used  the  second 
time,  it  should  be  renailed  before  filling,  and  all  old,  broken,  or 
flimsy  containers  replaced  by  new  ones.  In  packing,  a  layer  of 
straw  or  excelsior  on  the  bottom  of  the  case  will  break  the  jar  by 
permitting  a  certain  springiness.  The  eggs  should  be  placed  in 
the  fillers  small  end  down,  no  large  eggs  being  packed,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  broken  and  spoil  the  appearance  and  quality  of  others. 
After  all  are  in,  a  thin  layer  of  hay  or  straw  should  be  spread 
over  the  top  under  the  lid.  The  lid  should  be  nailed  securely  at 
each  end,  but  not  in  the  middle;  this  leaves  room  for  spring,  and 
often  prevents  the  breaking  of  many  eggs. 

When  shipping  to  a  limited  trade  or  to  private  customers,  it 
may  be  well  to  use  the  standard  fifteen-dozen  case  instead  of  the 
thirty-dozen.  Corrugated  pasteboard  boxes  varying  in  capacity 
from  one  to  five  dozen,  if  properly  packed,  are  very  satisfactory. 
Light  weight  and  durability  are  two  important  requisites  in  an 
egg  container.  For  high-class  wholesale  or  fancy  trade,  the  one- 
dozen  cartons  are  the  most  profitable  for  home  grading,  and  they 
are  a  guarantee  of  the  product.  The  2x6  cartons  (Fig.  197)  are 
the  best,  being  designed  to  fit  the  regulation  thirty-dozen  case. 
When  they  are  used,  it  is  better  to  ship  in  a  reinforced  case,  which 
can  be  utilized  indefinitely  for  shipping,  being  returned  to  the 
shipper  empty  after  each  trip.  Such  a  case  can  be  locked,  and 
the  product  will  reach  the  consumer  untampered  with;  hence  the 
guarantee  is  protected. 

In  using  the  cartons,  the  guarantee  can  be  printed  upon 
them,  together  with  the  name  of  the  farm  (Fig.  197)  and  the 
producer.  Eggs  guaranteed,  in  this  way  should  be  sealed  to  guard 
against  any  fraudulent  subsequent  use  of  the  carton  for  inferior 
eggs;  for,  in  any  case,  if  the  seal  is  broken  the  guarantee  is  void. 


436 


MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 


The  stenciling  of  the  shipping  case  or  box  is  advisable;  for 
if  a  superior  product  is  always  shipped  in  such  a  case,  there  will 
naturally  be  an  increasing  demand  for  it,  and  the  trade-mark 
becomes  the  symbol  of  quality  and  a  selling  card  for  the  eggs. 
If  a  guarantee  is  once  given,  the  shipper  must  be  careful  never 
to  ship  anything  below  the  standard,  for  a  few  inferior  eggs 
will  do  more  harm  than  years  of  careful  selection  can  undo. 
A  neat,  durable,  attractively  labeled  case  is  an  excellent  invest- 
ment (Fig.  197). 

Shipping. — Eggs  should  be  shipped  frequently,  especially 
during  the  summer,  the  frequency  depending  largely  upon  the 
output.  If  held  for  considerable  time, — one  to  three  weeks, 


FIG.  197. — A  popular  method  of  packing  eggs  for  shipment.  A,  Well-built  2x6  car- 
tons used  in  the  producer-to-consumer  trade.  The  trade  name  should  guarantee  the  quality. 
B,  Substantial  case  filled  with  high-grade  eggs.  The  cartons  should  be  sealed,  to  protect 
the  guarantee. 

according  to  the  season, — eggs  deteriorate  rapidly,  and  are  then 
termed  "  helds,"  which  bring  a  much  lower  price.  Even  in  cold 
weather  it  is  well  to  ship  at  least  once  a  week,  in  order  to  guard 
against  freezing, — or  overheating,  if  the  eggs  are  kept  in  a  warm 
room  to  prevent  freezing,  as  is  often  the  case  on  a  farm.  Eggs 
should  always  be  shipped  by  express,  the  charges  to  be  collected 
from  the  receiver,  for  he  is  in  a  better  position  to  recover 
damages  from  the  transportation  company  in  case  of  breakage. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  recover  anything  from  the  company 
because  of  delay;  hence,  the  necessity  of  studying  train  schedules, 
and,  if  shipment  can  be  made  by  several  routes,  determine  which 
is  the  best,  and  the  best  time  for  loading.  The  shipment  should 
start  as  soon  after  loading  as  possible.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  send 
the  consignee  a  postal  card  apprising  him  of  the  shipment,  so 


MARKETING  EGGS  FOR  HUMAN  FOOD  437 

that  he  can  be  on  the  outlook  for  it,  and  thus  prevent  delay 
at  the  receiving  end. 

Preventable  Losses  in  Market  Eggs. — It  is  estimated  that 
seventeen  per  cent  of  all  eggs  shipped  to  wholesale  markets  have 
no  commercial  value,  hence  are  a  total  loss;  and  that  these  losses 
could  be  almost  wholly  prevented  by  better  management,  grading, 
and  methods  of  marketing.  These  preventable  losses  are  divided 
approximately  as  follows: 

Dirty  eggs 2      per  cent. 

Breakage 2      per  cent. 

Chicks  developed 5      per  cent. 

Shrunken  or  "held" 5      per  cent. 

Rotten "  23/6  per  cent. 

Moldy,  bad  flavor ^  per  cent. 

Total 17      per  cent. 

Of  course,  this  loss,  resulting  in  decreased  wholesale  prices 
and  heavy  commissions,  must  be  paid  for  by  the  poultryman 
and  farmer. 

Prevention  of  Such  Losses. — The  following  conditions,  if  ad- 
hered to,  will  almost  entirely  eliminate  the  possibility  of  loss,  and 
even  increase  the  profits  from  the  production  of  market  eggs. 
Eggs  for  market  should  weigh  from  one  and  one-half  to  two 
pounds  per  dozen;  be  uniform  in  size;  be  free  from  dirt,  but  not 
washed;  be  strong-shelled  and  sound,  be  fresh,  not  over  five  days 
old;  be  infertile.  They  should  be  laid  in  clean  nests;  be  gathered 
often;  never  be  taken  from  an  incubator;  never  be  taken  from 
stolen  nests;  and  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

The  Value  of  Infertile  Eggs  for  Market. — Much  of  the  loss, 
especially  during  spring  and  summer,  is  due  to  the  development 
of  the  germ  in  fertile  eggs.  This  is  brought  about  by  keeping  the 
eggs  in  too  warm  a  place,  such  as  a  warm  room  near  a  fire,  by  ex- 
posure to  the  sun  while  being  carried  to  the  shipping  point  or 
while  en  route,  by  a  broody  hen  sitting  on  the  nest,  and  by  irregular 
gathering  of  the  eggs.  The  production  of  infertile  eggs  alone  for 
table  purposes  would  eliminate  all  danger  of  germ  development, 
and  their  advantages  over  fertile  eggs  can  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows: They  do  not  hatch;  contain  no  germs  to  be  developed; 
withstand  heat;  bear  shipment  well;  are  easily  preserved;  are 
slow  to  decay;  best  for  cold  storage;  less  costly  than  fertile  eggs; 
male  birds  not  required;  and  are  produced  just  as  abundantly  as 


438 


MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 


fertile  eggs.  There  is  probably  nothing  the  poultryman  can  do 
which  would  so  much  improve  the  quality  of  eggs  for  table  use 
as  the  production  of  infertile  eggs  (Figs.  198  and  199). 


I 


FIG.  198. — A  comparison  showing  the  effect  of  incubation  temperature  on  fertile  and 
infertile  eggs.  A,  Strictly  fresh  egg  with  fertile  germ.  B,  Infertile  egg  after  being  in  incu- 
bation temperature  for  48  hours.  The  sterile  germ  never  shows  any  development.  C,  Fertile 
germ  after  48  hours  of  development.  Eggs  with  sterile  germs  keep  much  longer  and  are 
much  safer  to  use  for  human  food. 

Candling. — It  is  evident  from  the  above  that  all  kinds  of 
eggs  are  found  in  the  egg  market, — stale,  shrunken,  unclean, 
broken,  cracked,  and  even  rotten  eggs.  These  conditions  are 
indirectly  due  to  one  of  the  following  causes:  Carelessness  on  the 
poultry  farm,  carelessness  in  marketing,  and  climatic  conditions. 


MARKETING  EGGS  FOR  HUMAN  FOOD 


439 


In  order  to  detect  in  the  general  run  of  eggs  those  which 
are  of  poor  quality,  and  the  causes,  they  are  subjected  to  a  pro- 
cedure known  as  candling.  Size,  cleanliness,  and  color  are  appar- 
ent on  external  inspection;  freshness  is  indicated  by  firm  body; 


FIG.  199. — Stages  of  development  of  the  embryo  during  the  first  week  of  incubation. 
A,  24  hours;  B,  36  hours  (see  drawing,  Fig.  148);  C,  72  hours  (see  drawing,  Fig.  149);  D, 
7  days;  note  the  very  large  head  with  eyes  of  large  proportion  (compare  Fig.  162). 

and  proper  care  of  the  egg  from  the  time  it  was  laid  can  be  readily 
determined  by  holding  it  before  a  strong  light  in  such  a  way 
that  the  rays  of  light  will  shine  through  the  egg  and  reveal  its 
contents  to  the  operator.  A  candling  equipment  consists  of  a 
bright  light  enclosed  in  an  opaque  box  or  shield,  the  light  for 
testing  shining  out  through  a  hole  in  front  slightly  less  in  diam- 


440  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

eter  than  the  short  axis  of  the  egg.  The  eggs  are  candled  in  the 
same  way  as  when  tested  during  incubation.  Certain  conditions 
should  be  looked  for,  and  the  operator  divides  the  eggs  into  lots, 
each  in  a  different  receptacle  according  to  its  class,  as  follows: 
Rots,  spots,  checks,  seconds,  firsts,  and  extras. 

A  fresh,  newly  laid  egg  can  be  recognized  by  the  fact  that 
the  contents  entirely  fill  the  shell.  As  cooling  takes  place,  the 
contents  of  the  egg  contract,  leaving  a  small  empty  space  at  the 
large  end  which  is  termed  the  air  cell.  As  the  egg  ages,  this  cell 
rapidly  increases  in  size,  because  of  the  escape  of  moisture  through 
the  shell.  In  extremely  stale  eggs  or  those  not  properly  taken 
care  of,  the  cell  may  occupy  half  of  the  shell;  such  eggs  are  said 
to  be  shrunken.  Shrunken  or  stale  eggs  have  lost  their  fine  fresh 
flavor,  and  sell  in  all  markets  at  a  low  price. 

In  a  strictly  fresh  egg,  the  yolk  shows  faintly  as  a  dark  mass 
in  the  centre  of  the  shell ;  when  the  egg  is  moved,  this  flark  mass 
moves  about,  sometimes  becoming  more  distinct,  and  again  less 
so  as  it  settles  at  the  farthest  side  of  the  egg.  Before  the  candle 
the  rotten  egg  looks  opaque  or  very  dark  colored  and  appears 
as  a  homogeneous  mass;  during  the  process  of  decay  the  mem- 
branes give  way  and  the  contents  mix;  for  this  reason  a  rotten 
egg,  if  shaken,  will  sound  sloppy.  Such  eggs  are  a  total  loss. 
Eggs  may  rot  from  one  or  two  causes : 

1.  The  presence  of  a  partially  developed   chick  which  de- 
composes immediately  after  death. 

2.  The  presence  of  a  fungus,  which  penetrates  the  shell  through 
cracks  or  pores,  and  develops  rapidly,  if  the  egg  is  not  properly 
cared  for. 

In  eggs  classified  as  "  spots  "  the  yolk  is  found  adhering  to 
the  shell,  or  there  is  a  fungous  growth,  or  a  partially  developed 
embryo.  Such  eggs  are  not  edible.  Until  recently  it  was  the 
custom  in  large  candling  establishments  to  break  and  strain 
these  eggs,  canning  the  strained  material  for  cooking  purposes; 
it  was  put  on  the  market  as  canned  eggs.  This  practice  has  been 
abolished  by  recent  pure-food  legislation.  The  number  of  such 
eggs  on  the  market,  especially  during  the  spring  and  summer 
months,  is  enormous;  such  eggs  are  legitimately  used  in  finishing 
leather. 

The  class  of  eggs  designated  by  the  candler  as  "  checks  "  in- 
cludes all  eggs  which  are  cracked,  exceptionally  small,  or  dirty. 
Eggs  so  badly  cracked  as  to  permit  part  of  the  contents  to  ooze 


MARKETING  EGGS  FOR  HUMAN  FOOD 


441 


out  are  termed  "  leaks,"  and  can  be  sold  for  food  if  consumed 
immediately. 

Second-quality  eggs  are  clean  and  sound  shelled,  but  under- 
sized; they  may  be  fresh,  or  may  be  held  so  long  that  they 
become  shrunken  and  stale.  Full-sized  and  clean  but  stale 
eggs  also  rank  as  seconds. 

First-quality  eggs  are  not 
candled,  being  guaranteed 
by  the  shipper,  who  is  re- 
sponsible for  their  quality 
on  reaching  the  consumer. 
Candling  is  constantly  prac- 
tised for  the  protection 
of  the  consumer  and  the 
wholesale  merchant,  and  is 
made  necessary  by  the  lack 
of  care  and  consideration 
on  the  part  of  the  producer 
(Fig.  200). 

Preservation. — From  the 
fact  that  eggs  are  produced 
most  abundantly  during  the 
spring  when  the  price  is  con- 
sequently low,  and  that  pro- 
duction decreases  and  selling 
price  advances  during  the 
winter  season,  a  simple  but 
satisfactory  method  of  pre- 
serving eggs  for  the  home 
table  or  a  restricted  retail 
trade  seems  most  desirable. 
People  have  appreciated  this 
fact  for  many  years,  and  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  preserve  them.  The  best  way  is  by 
the  use  of  water-glass,  which  will  preserve  a  small  number  of  eggs 
for  family  use  at  slight  cost.  It  cannot,  however,  be  used  for  eggs 
at  wholesale.  Eggs  may  be  preserved  for  a  year,  and  yet  be  suffi- 
ciently fresh  for  cooking.  It  is  often  impossible  to  distinguish  eggs 
preserved  in  water-glass  from  eggs  only  six  or  seven  days  old; 
in  fact,  if  properly  done,  the  preserved  egg  is  often  superior  to  the 
apparently  fresh  one;  as,  for  instance,  when  the  latter  has  been 


Fia.  200. — A  commercial  egg  candler  at 
work.  The  electric  light  is  here  enclosed  in  a 
stovepipe  with  two  holes  in  the  side.  Each  grade 
of  eggs  is  placed  in  its  own  case. 


442  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

exposed  to  a  warm  August  sun  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
time  intervening  between  laying  and  marketing. 

Perfect  preservation  depends  upon  two  factors, — the  condi- 
tion of  the  eggs  when  preserved  and  the  method  of  preserving. 

Eggs  which  are  to  be  preserved  should  be  from  a  perfectly 
healthy  flock  which  has  been  supplied  with  enough  shell-forming 
material  to  make  it  certain  that  the  shells  are  of  fair  and  uniform 
thickness.  The  nests  should  be  clean  and  well  ventilated,  so  that 
the  eggs  cannot  become  infected  while  in  them.  The  eggs  should 
be  gathered  daily,  to  prevent  any  heating  by  broody  hens,  and 
should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  room  away  from  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun.  Use  only  clean  ones,  and  preserve  them  the  day  they 
are  laid.  Those  eggs  laid  in  April,  May,  and  June  should  be 
preserved,  for  there  is  less  profit  at  other  seasons. 

Method. — A  cool  and  dry  but  dark  cellar  in  which  the  tem- 
perature does  not  rise  higher  than  60  degrees  is  the  best  place  in 
which  to  keep  them.  Clean  stone  jars  holding  about  fifteen 
dozen  eggs  are  the  best  receptacles.  To  ten  quarts  of  clean,  boiled 
water,  which  has  been  allowed  to  cool,  add  one  quart  of  water- 
glass,  and  stir  until  thoroughly  mixed. 

The  eggs  should  be  placed  in  the  receptacle,  being  sure  that 
none  are  dirty  or  cracked,  and  over  them  the  liquid  should  be 
poured  until  all  are  completely  submerged.  They  should  be 
kept  submerged  about  an  inch  below  the  top  of  the  liquid. 
The  receptacle  should  be  covered  to  stop  evaporation;  if  left 
exposed,  the  mixture  turns  a  milky  white  and  does  not  pre- 
serve the  eggs  properly.  The  jars  should  be  placed  on  a  shelf 
or  dry  platform  out  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  preserv- 
ing solution  should  not  be  used  for  more  than  one  batch  of  eggs 
or  more  than  one  season.  If  correctly  done  the  shrinkage  in 
weight  by  this  process,  over  a  period  of  nine  months,  is  not 
more  than  one  per  cent. 

Storage.— The  cold  storage  of  eggs  has  come  to  be  a  recognized 
part  of  the  commercial  business.  It  is  much  the  safest,  as  well  as 
the  most  economical,  way  by  which  to  preserve  large  quantities  of 
eggs  for  an  extended  period.  It  enables  the  poultryman  to  sell 
his  product  at  a  profit  the  year  round.  If  he  could  not  store  them 
during  the  time  of  heavy  production,  eggs  would  be  so  plentiful 
during  the  spring  that  they  could  not  be  sold,  and  during  the 
winter  few  could  be  had  at  any  price.  The  holding  back  of  eggs 
by  means  of  artificial  refrigeration  is  a  source  of  larger  annual 


MARKETING  LIVE  POULTRY  443 

piofit  to  the  egg  producer,  and  yet  makes  eggs  cheaper  for  con- 
sumers in  winter. 

Commercial  cold  storage  consists  in  keeping  eggs  in  scru- 
pulously clean  rooms  at  a  temperature  of  from  29°  to  32°  F.,  from 
March  or  April  until  the  following  January  or  February,  or  even 
later  if  the  winter  is  severe  and  the  spring  supply  comes  in  slowly. 
During  these  latter  months  fresh  prime  eggs  usually  sell  for  thirty 
to  fifty  cents,  while  fancy  Western  storage  eggs  bring  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty-five.  The  storage  egg  never  equals  the  fresh  egg  in 
quality,  yet  it  is  just  as  good  for  cooking  purposes,  and  its  lower 
price  at  this  time  enables  the  housewife  to  secure  an  abundance  of 
good  eggs  at  reasonable  cost. 

MARKETING  LIVE  POULTRY. 

In  shipping  live  birds  to  market  under  a  guarantee,  they  must 
be  just  as  carefully  selected  and  graded  as  any  other  poultry 
product.  They  should  be  up  to  the  designated  weight,  and  as 
uniform  as  it  is  possible  to  have  them.  The  small  producer  ship- 
ping small  quantities  will  usually  find  it  impracticable  to  guar- 
antee such  a  shipment,  but  will  dispose  of  the  entire  lot  at  the 
current  price  for  mixed  goods. 

The  great  mass  of  live  poultry  which  reaches  the  Eastern 
markets  is  shipped  from  the  Central- Western  States  in  carload 
lots.  These  cars  are  built  for  the  purpose,  being  made  with  four 
or  five  floors  or  tiers. 

When  shipping  short  distances  to  local  markets,  specially 
constructed  but  strong  and  durable  shipping  cases  are  used.  If 
breeding  birds  are  shipped,  care  must  be  exercised  to  protect  them 
from  injury  and  from  colds  due  to  drafts. 

Live  birds  for  food  are  usually  shipped  by  freight,  and,  if  a 
considerable  distance  is  to  be  covered,  provision  must  be  made 
for  feeding  and  watering  them.  Fowls  are  usually  sold  alive, 
direct  from  the  farm,  while  such  meat  birds  as  broilers  and  capons 
are  usually  dressed,  owing  to  the  higher  price  they  bring  if  so 
prepared. 

Baby  chicks  should  be  shipped  as  soon  as  they  are  taken 
from  the  incubator, — that  is,  as  soon  as  they  are  perfectly  dry 
and  on  their  feet.  They  should  be  put  in  strong  light-weight 
boxes  and  securely  fastened.  The  box  should  have  holes  for  ven- 
tilation (Fig.  201),  and  be  divided  into  compartments,  with  not 
more  than  twenty-five  chicks  in  each  compartment;  this  prevents 


444 


MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 


crowding,  and  perhaps  suffocation.     If  the  bottom  is  lined  with 
burlap  it  will  keep  the  chicks  from  slipping  about. 

The  boxes  should  be  plainly  marked,  stating  nature  of  con- 
tents and  name  of  customer  and  shipper.     They  should  always 


FiQ.  201. — Boxes  for  shipping  baby  chicks.     (Photo  by  Rancocas  Poultry  Farm.) 

be  sent  by  express,  the  customer  being  notified  in  advance  of  the 
shipment  so  that  the  brooder  may  be  in  readiness. 

MARKETING   DRESSED    POULTRY. 

After  plucking  and  cooling,  the  dressed  birds  should  be  sorted, 
especially  if  they  vary  much  in  size  and  quality.  A  box  of  poultry 
should  contain  birds  which  are  alike  in  character  and  size.  Each 
box  is  labeled  according  to  the  character  of  the  contents.  De- 
fective birds,  such  as  those  torn  in  picking,  those  which  are  thin, 
or  which  show  any  deformity,  such  as  crooked  breasts  and  backs, 
should  not  be  shipped,  but  may  be  consumed  at  home.  If  packed 
with  the  others  such  birds  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  whole  lot 
(Fig.  202).  The  selling  price  of  the  best,  and  of  the  whole  box,  is 
reduced  by  the  few  poor  ones.  With  market  poultry  uniformity 
is  just  as  important  as  with  eggs  (Fig.  203). 

Packages  and  Packing.— The  kind  of  cases  used  for  shipping 
depends  upon  the  type  of  birds  and  the  quality.  Broilers  are 


MARKETING  DRESSED  POULTRY 


445 


usually  shipped  in  barrels,  but  extra-quality  broilers  are  often 
packed  in  boxes  or  small  cases,  carefully  labeled  and  guaranteed; 
they  must,  however,  be  of  fine  quality  to  warrant  such  procedure. 


B 


Fi<;    202.  — Tndesirable    types  of    market  broilers   which  should   be  consumed  at  home. 
A,  Torn  during  picking;  B,  crooked  back;  C,  starved  and  emaciated. 


FIG.  203. — Soft  roasters  ready  for  market.    Uniformity  in  size  and  quality  is  necessary  if 
the  best  prices  are  to  be  realized.     (Photo  by  Purdue  University.) 

Roasters  and  capons  are  usually  packed  in  boxes,  the  size 
depending  upon  the  weight  and  size  of  the  birds.  As  a  rule, 
twelve  birds  are  packed  in  each  box. 

If  water  is  used  for  cooling  the  carcasses,  they  should  after- 


446  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

ward  be  laid  on  a  sloping  table  or  may  be  suspended  while  they 
are  draining.  The  barrel  or  box  should  be  lined  with  waxed  or 
paraffin  paper,  to  keep  them  from  rubbing  against  the  box  and  to 
protect  them  from  staining.  When  packed  in  barrels  (Fig.  204, 
A),  the  wings  should  be  folded  over  the  back,  and  the  birds  laid 


FIG.  204  —Methods  of  packing  fancy  grades  of  dressed  poultry.     A,  Barrel  and  box 
packed,  corn-fed  pullets;  B,  roasting  chickens  showing  side  pack;  C,  roasting    chickens, 

boaT  t  P^  !  ',an  eXtT  fanCY  grade  °f  r°asters'  packed  in  Pairs-  in  sPecial  Paste- 
board  cartons,  bix  cartons  make  a  crate.  (Photo  by  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Chemistry.) 

in  the  barrel  in  circular  layers;  with  broilers  one  can  usually 
form  two  perfect  circles,  one  within  the  other,  with  three  birds 
in  the  centre  to  complete  the  layer.  The  number  of  birds  in  a 
layer  depends  upon  the  size.  When  the  quality  warrants  it  or 
when  roasters  or  fowls  are  packed  for  shipment,  boxes  are  used, 


MARKETING  DRESSED  POULTRY  447 

but  they  must  be  so  packed  as  to  make  a  good  appearance,  or  the 
best  prices  will  not  be  realized.  There  are  three  ways  of  packing 
the  birds,  namely,  side,  breast  (Fig.  204,  B,  C),  and  back  packing. 
The  side  pack,  the  birds  being  laid  on  one  side,  is  the  most  common. 
When  shipping  in  warm  weather,  crushed  ice  should  be  used 
(Fig.  205),  placing  first  a  layer  of  birds  and  then  a  layer  of  ice, 
the  amount  of  ice  depending  on  the  weather  and  shipping  distance, 
more  of  course  being  necessary  in  midsummer  and  none  during 
the  winter.  In  hot  weather  it  is  a  good  plan  to  place  a  large  cake 
of  ice  at  the  top  of  the  barrel  before  putting  the  cover  on.  As 
the  ice  melts,  the  water  percolates  down  through  the  contents  and 


FIG.   205. — A  fancy  grade  of  broilers,  box  packed  and  iced  for  shipment.     The  side  pack 

is  used  here. 

keeps  them  cool.  Holes  bored  in  the  bottom  of  the  receptacle  will 
permit  the  water  to  escape;  otherwise  it  would  spoil  the  contents. 

Plenty  of  ice  must  be  used,  or  the  birds  will  deteriorate  greatly 
during  shipment  and  bring  a  lower  price  (Fig.  205). 

Shipping. — Dressed  poultry  should  always  be  shipped  by  ex- 
press, charges  to  be  collected.  This  is  the  quickest  mode  of 
shipping,  the  products  reaching  the  consignee  in  the  best  con- 
dition and  being  delivered  immediately  upon  receipt.  If,  by  a 
mistake  in  handling,  they  go  astray  or  are  held  back,  having  been 
sent  "  collect  "  the  express  company  is  made  liable,  and  can  more 
easily  be  compelled  to  settle. 

Dressed  poultry  usually  finds  a  better  market  between  the 
middle  and  end  of  the  week  than  during  the  first  of  the  week. 
This  is  especially  true  of  live  poultry,  the  heavy  demand  being 


448  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

for  Sunday.  It  is  well,  therefore,  so  to  plan  shipments  that  they 
will  reach  their  destination  on  Thursday,  or  not  later  than  Friday. 

Cold  Storage  of  Dressed  Poultry. — Where  dressed  poultry  is  to 
be  shipped  a  considerable  distance  to  market,  it  is  usually  sent  in 
refrigerator  cars,  in  which  the  temperature  is  kept  at  or  below  40°  F. 
by  means  of  salt  and  ice  crushed  fine  and  packed  in  the  bunkers. 
In  this  way  dressed  poultry  can  be  shipped  thousands  of  miles,  and 
will  go  through  in  prime  condition.  Thorough  chilling  for  about 
forty-eight  hours  in  a  mechanical  freezer  before  placing  the  poultry 
in  the  car  will  help  to  put  the  shipment  through  in  good  shape. 

During  periods  of  heavy  production  dressed  poultry  is  often 
placed  in  cold  storage,  but  it  should  be  held  a  much  shorter  time 
than  is  the  case  with  eggs.  Cold-storage  birds  deteriorate  consider- 
ably, especially  if  not  properly  bled  and  dressed;  and,  owing  to  this, 
the  practice  should  be  limited  to  holding  for  only  short  periods. 

OTHER   PRODUCTS. 

Preparing  and  Marketing  the  Feathers. — On  large  plants 
where  many  birds  are  killed  and  dry  picked,  the  feathers,  if  prop- 
erly handled,  bring  in  a  considerable  revenue.  Scalding,  however, 
so  reduces  their  value  that  they  do  not  pay  for  drying  and  curing. 
White  feathers  always  bring  a  higher  price  than  those  of  mixed 
colors.  In  dry  picking  the  best  method  is  to  have  at  the  side  of 
the  picker  a  barrel  or  large  box  in  which  to  put  all  the  soft,  fluffy 
and  body  feathers,  the  larger  ones  with  a  big  quill  being  kept 
separate,  as  they  are  of  no  value.  The  feathers  must  be  kept 
free  from  dirt  and  blood,  and  at  the  end  of  each  day's  picking 
they  should  be  spread  out  about  six  inches  deep  on  a  clean  floor 
to  dry.  A  good  place  is  a  dry,  well-ventilated  loft.  They  should 
be  turned  every  few  days  for  three  weeks,  after  which  they  may  be 
bagged  up  and  sold. 

In  some  sections  buyers  of  poultry  and  eggs  collect  feathers 
also,  but  there  is  usually  no  local  collector  available  for  the  small 
producer,  whose  best  course  is  to  get  the  name  of  some  special 
feather  buyer  from  trade  papers,  and  communicate  with  him. 
Such  firms  purchase  feathers  of  all  qualities,  and  on  request  will 
quote  prices  and  manner  of  shipping.  Extensive  shippers  of 
dressed  poultry  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  secure  a  regular 
firm  to  handle  their  whole  output  of  feathers  at  a  regular  price. 
In  this  way  the  producer  learns  what  quality  and  methods  are 


COOPERATIVE  MARKETING  449 

favored  by  that  particular  firm,  and  thus  realizes  a  higher  price. 
Feathers  bring  from  25  to  40  cents  per  pound  the  year  round. 

Duck  feathers  are  more  valuable,  and  they  are  very  abundant. 
Goose  feathers  bring  the  highest  price,  but  the  supply  is  limited. 

How  to  Handle  the  Manure. — Poultry  manure  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  fertilizers  produced  by  farm  animals,  being  espe- 
cially rich  in  nitrogen,  and  in  demand  for  truck  raising.  For  this 
purpose  it  finds  a  ready  market  at  seventy-five  to  eighty  cents 
per  barrel  the  year  round.  Formerly  it  was  in  considerable  de- 
mand for  tanning  purposes,  but  the  scarcity  of  the  right  quality 
and  the  increasing  substitution  of  chemicals  have  almost  entirely 
driven  it  out  of  this  market. 

Poultrymen  who  raise  crops  will  probably  find  that  they  can 
realize  the  most  from  their  manure  by  using  it  on  their  own  lands 
in  growing  larger  crops  for  feed.  If  the  manure  is  to  retain  its 
fertility,  it  should  be  collected  regularly  and  properly  taken  care 
of.  This  necessitates  the  use  of  a  good  absorbent  on  the  dropping 
boards,  or  under  the  perches  if  dropping  boards  are  not  used. 

A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  land  plaster  and  loam  is  very  good  for 
this  purpose.  Sifted  coal  ashes  are  also  useful,  and  dry,  pulverized 
peat  moss  is  excellent.  Ground  phosphate  rock  is  often  used.  The 
material  used  should  absorb  the  moisture  and  dry  out  the  droppings 
quickly,  yet  in  itself  be  a  good  fertilizer.  Sawdust  and  shavings  are 
undesirable,  as,  if  used  in  large  quantities,  they  are  injurious  to 
the  land.  Lime  is  also  objectionable,  as  it  liberates  the  ammonia 
containing  the  nitrogen.  The  droppings  should  be  placed  in  a 
covered  receptacle  where  the  rain  cannot  wash  and  leach  them. 

If  they  can  be  kept  dry  so  much  the  better.  A  large  box  or 
storage  bin  of  heavy  planking  or,  better  yet,  of  hollow  tile,  so  con- 
structed that  the  air  will  circulate  through  the  mass  of  droppings, 
is  very  effective.  If  the  amount  is  limited,  because  of  the  small 
number  of  birds  kept,  a  good  way  is  to  use  covered  barrels  in  which 
a  few  holes  are  bored  to  admit  air.  They  are  handy  from  the  fact 
that  they  can  be  easily  carried  to  the  field  when  needed  for  spread- 
ing, and  save  extra  labor.  The  practice  of  spreading  such  manure 
frequently  on  the  fields  is  better  than  using  storage  sheds. 

COOPERATIVE   MARKETING. 

Of  all  questions  confronting  the  poultryman,  that  of  marketing 
is  by  far  the  most  intricate  and  difficult  of  solution.    It  involves 
efficient  methods  in  production  and  preparation  and  good  busi- 
29 


450  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

ness  principles  in  distribution.  The  methods  can'  be  acquired  by 
study  and  practice;  but  distribution  demands  the  highest  degree 
of  concentration  of  mind,  as  well  as  cooperation  between  pro- 
ducers, in  order  effectually  to  control  its  factors. 

The  consumer  must  be  brought  closer  to  the  producer.  Too 
much  of  what  the  consumers  pay  goes  to  the  middle  men.  The 
Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  1910  shows  that  the 
farmer  or  poultryman  receives  for  poultry  but  little  more  than 
one-half  of  what  the  consumers  pay,  while  for  eggs  he  receives 
only  69  per  cent.  The  poultryman  must  better  his  position  by 
organization  and  cooperation  in  buying  and  selling.  Thus  he 
can  cut  out  the  charges  and  profits  of  the  middle  men,  and  can 
put  on  the  market  a  large  quantity  of  better-grade  products  which 
will  insure  a  continuous  demand  at  profitable  prices.  It  also 
eliminates  the  necessity  for  two  or  three  handlings  in  the  course 
of  distribution,  which  means  a  higher  price  for  the  producer  and  a 
lower  one  for  the  consumer.  One  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  high 
cost  of  living  at  any  time  is  not  the  high  prices  received  by  the 
producer,  but  the  excessive  cost  of  distribution. 

A  cooperative  movement  in  marketing  must  have  for  its 
watchword,  "Quality  and  uniformity  of  products  sold";  lacking 
this  it  cannot  long  be  successful.  An  honest  spirit  of  rivalry  be- 
tween the  parties  is  another  essential,  and  is  more  important 
than  the  manner  of  selling.  The  success  of  such  an  organization 
depends  on  the  integrity  and  sincerity  of  each  member.  Many 
such  movements  have  failed  because  the  members  did  not  hold 
together,  or  because  one  of  their  number  tried  to  sell  an  inferior 
product  under  the  guarantee  of  the  association. 

Denmark  is  noted  for  the  success  of  its  agricultural  organiza- 
tions, especially  in  the  cooperative  selling  of  eggs.  Canada  also 
has  recently  achieved  marked  success  in  this  line.  It  is  carried 
on  by  means  of  "  egg  circles,"  which  are  merely  associations  of 
the  producers  in  a  given  community,  who  conform  to  certain 
standards  in  the  production,  collecting,  and  grading  of  their  eggs, 
and  agree  to  sell  them  under  a  trade  name  and  guarantee.  Hav- 
ing a  large  number  to  dispose  of,  it  is  easy  to  create  a  steady 
demand  and  to  sell  them  at  attractive  prices.  One  member  of 
the  organization  is  elected  or  hired  to  collect  and  ship  the  eggs 
from  one  to  three  times  a  week,  according  to  the  season. 


REVIEW  451 


REVIEW. 

1.  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  good  salesman? 

2.  What  are  the  three  types  of  markets? 

3.  Discuss  the  possibilities  and  advantages  of  each  of  the  three  types. 

4.  Discuss  the  relative  returns  for  marketing  eggs  through  different  channels 

of  trade. 

5.  Outline  the  possible  courses  of  products  from  producer  to  consumer. 

6.  Classify  customers  according  to  their  financial  standing  and  products 

purchased. 

7.  What  factors  influence  the  price  which  the  ultimate  consumer  pays? 

8.  What  factors  determine  the  supply? 

9.  Why  is  systematic  delivery  so  important  to  the  customer? 

10.  For  what  two  objects  are  eggs  marketed? 

11.  Discuss  the  packing  and  shipping  of  eggs  for  hatching. 

12.  Tell  of  the  importance  of  fertility. 

13.  What  is  the  value  of  a  guarantee  on  eggs  sold  for  hatching? 

14.  Discuss  prices  and  their  variation,  for  market  eggs. 

15.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  ultimate  price  regulation  of  market  eggs. 

16.  What  are  the  important  points  in  collecting  market  eggs? 

17.  Give  the  general  market  classification  of  fresh  eggs. 

18.  How  are  the  different  degrees  of  freshness  in  eggs  designated? 

19.  How  do  prices  vary  in  regard  to  size  and  color? 

20.  Discuss  the  packing  of  table  eggs  for  shipment. 

21.  What  are  the  advantages  of  stenciling  cases? 

22.  How  should  eggs  be  shipped? 

23.  Name  six  preventable  losses  in  market  eggs. 

24.  Give  eight  means  of  preventing  the  above  losses. 

25.  What  are  the  advantages  of  infertile  eggs? 

26.  Name  the  causes  which  make  candling  necessary. 

27.  Into  what  six  grades  does  the  commercial  candler  divide  his  eggs? 

28.  In  what  two  ways  are  rotten  eggs  produced? 

29.  Outline  a  method  of  preserving  eggs  for  home  use. 

30.  Discuss  the  cold  storage  of  eggs. 

31.  What  are  the  essential  points  in  marketing  live  poultry? 

32.  Describe  packages  and  method  of  packing  dressed  poultry. 

33.  How  should  dressed  poultry  be  shipped? 

34.  How  should  feathers  be  handled? 

35.  Describe  a  profitable  way  of  deriving  revenue  from  the  manure. 

36.  What  are  the  possibilities  of  cooperative  marketing? 

References.— The  Marketing  of  Poultry  Products,  by  F.  H.  Stoneburn, 
Connecticut  Bulletin  38.  Marketing  Poultry  Products,  by  H.  R.  Lewis,  New 
Jersey  Board  of  Agriculture  Bulletin.  Changes  Taking  Place  in  Chickens  in 
Cold  Storage,  by  M.  E.  Pennington,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook 
1907.  Studies  of  Poultry  from  the  Farm  to  the  Consumer,  by  M.  E.  Penning- 
ton, U.  S.  Bureau  of  Chemistry  Circular  64.  Marketing  Poultry  Products, 
by  James  E.  Rice,  Cornell  Reading  Course  Bulletin  20.  Marketing  Eggs 
through  the  Creamery,  by  Robert  R.  Slocum,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  445. 


452  MARKETING  THE  PRODUCTS 

The  Reduction  of  Waste  in  Marketing,  by  Frank  Andrews,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  Yearbook  1911.  The  Egg  Trade  of  the  United  States,  by 
Hastings,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular  140.  Eggs  and  their 
Use  as  Food,  by  G.  F.  Langworthy,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  128.  Poultry  as 
Food,  by  H.  W.  Atwater,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  182.  Poultry  as  Food,  by 
R.  D.  Milner,  Connecticut  Bulletin  27.  The  Improvement  of  the  Farm  Egg, 
by  Lamon  and  Opperman,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin  141. 
Selling  Eggs  by  Weight,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  122.  Food  Value  of  Eggs; 
in  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  87.  Analysis  of  Eggs,  Maine  Bulletin  75. 
Preserving  Eggs,  Arizona  Bulletin  60.  The  Marketing  of  Eggs,  by  A.  G. 
Phillips,  Kansas  Bulletin  162.  The  Marketing  of  Eggs,  by  C.  S.  Plum,  Ohio 
Extension  Bulletin  8.  Poultry  Manure,  in  U.  S,  Farmers'  Bulletin  384. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING. 

Importance  of  Records. — Record  keeping  is  essential  in  any 
line  of  business  if  the  owner  of  that  business  is  to  have  a  clear 
grasp  of  its  details.  But  it  is  doubly  necessary  in  poultry  craft, 
because  poultry  raising  is  primarily  a  matter  of  detail.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  keeping  of  records : 

1.  They    lessen   the   strain   on   memory.     Even   though  the 
poultryman  be  gifted  with  a  remarkable  memory,  he  will  have 
sufficient  opportunity    to  exercise  it  after  writing  down  all  the 
more  important  of  his  happenings  and  transactions. 

2.  It  is  the  only  accurate  way  to  keep  track  of  work  previ- 
ously done.     Memory  will  sometimes  fail  a  man,  even  though 
his  mental  power  be  remarkable. 

3.  Records   accurately  kept  may  be  of  great  value  for  refer- 
ence at  a  distant  time  in  the  future. 

4.  The   comparison    of  records  extending  over  a  period  of 
years  will  reveal  any   improvement  or  deterioration  in  the  run- 
ning of  the  plant,  and  will  indicate  the  continuance  or  change  of 
these  methods,  as  may  be  advisable. 

5.  Records    enable   the  poultryman  to  detect  leaks  in  the 
different  branches  of  his  business,  and  to  stop  them. 

6.  He  can  find  out  at  any  time  how  his  business  stands  finan- 
cially, as  well  as  the  effectiveness  of  the  various  operations,  such 
as  incubation,  brooding,  and  egg  production. 

7.  The   poultryman  who  advertises  can  back  up  his  advertise- 
ments with    actual  facts  from  the  records  of  the  cost  and  pro- 
duction of  his  own  flocks. 

8.  Records  make  possible  home  experimentation  and  improve- 
ment in  methods. 

9.  They   create  a  love  for  and  an  interest  in  the  work  which 
otherwise  might  not  be  awakened. 

Planning  Records. — In  planning  to  keep  poultry  records,  four 
points  must  be  considered,  namely: 

1.  Simplicity.    The  records  should  be  so  simple,  systematic, 
and  orderly  as  to  give  at  a  glance  the  information  desired. 

2.  They  should  include  all  transactions  of  the  business.    While 

453 


454  RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 

it  is  advisable  to  leave  a  convenient  space  for  general  notes,  yet 
the  record  should  be  so  planned  as  to  cover  concisely  every  pos- 
sible feature. 

3.  There  should  be  as  little  clerical  work  as  possible.     The 
poultryman  is  a  busy  man,  and  complicated  systems  will  prove 
anything  but  an  asset,  for  his  time  will  not  permit  him  to  keep 
them  accurately.     The  plan  should  be  to  set  an  item  down  but 
once,  and  in  such  a  way  that,  if  the  total  of  a  certain  group  of 
items  is  desired,  it  can  be  obtained  simply  by  adding  a  column  of 
figures  regularly  tabulated  on  the  record. 

4.  Record  sheets  should  be  of  uniform  size,  so  arranged  that  they 
can  be  easily  filed  and,  if  desired,  transported  from  place  to  place. 

Important  Records  to  Keep. — The  records  best  adapted  to  a 
particular  poultry  enterprise  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  extent 
and  character  of  the  business,  yet  what  may  be  termed  "  general 
poultry  records  "  will  be  useful  on  any  poultry  farm.  In  some 
instances  more  complicated  records  may  be  needed;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, on  progressive  breeding  farms,  where  pedigree  matings 
and  lengthy,  trap-nest  records  are  to  be  kept.  Types  of  records 
and  facts  to  be  recorded  are  here  discussed. 

Breeding  records  are  most  important  where  improvement  of 
stock  is  systematically  brought  about  by  breeding  and  selection, 
and  also  where  advertised  matings  are  kept  and  stock  and  eggs 
for  hatching  sold.  Such  records  show:  (1)  The  matings,  desig- 
nated by  number  or  letter.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  use  both  letter 
and  number,  one  signifying  the  year  and  the  other  the  number  of 
the  mating.  (2)  The  manner  of  marking  the  eggs  from  each 
mating.  The  best  method  is  to  use  the  number  of  the  mating 
for  this  purpose,  and,  if  trap-nest  records  are  kept,  this  number 
can  be  written  on  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  directly  over  the  bird's 
band  number,  with  a  line  between.  (3)  Breeding  records 
should  also  contain  trap-nest  records  of  matings  of  the  birds,  as 
well  as  a  brief  description  of  both  male  and  female.  (4)  Eggs 
set  and  resulting  chicks. 

The  safest  way  to  mark  the  chicks  from  pedigree  matings  is 
by  chick  leg  bands  (Fig.  153),  which  are  subsequently  changed 
for  adult  bands,  the  new  number  being  placed  on  the  breeding 
record  at  the  time  of  changing. 

Another  method  is  to  use  the  toe  punch,  which,  however,  is 
limited  to  the  few  combinations  which  can  be  designated  (Fig. 
152);  there  is  also  the  possibility  of  the  marks  not  being  perma- 


IMPORTANT  RECORDS  TO  KEEP 


455 


nent.  The  rim  punch  should  always  be  used,  as  it  is  the 'only 
instrument  which  makes  a  clean  hole  without  tearing.  The  hole 
should  be  made  far  enough  from  the  edge  to  minimize  the  danger 
of  its  tearing  out. 

The  following  form  shows  a  good  way  of  keeping  mating  and 
breeding  records : 

Individual  Mating  Record. 


(Male 
PARENTAGES 


(Female  No. 
Experiment  No 


DATE  .  . 


Mating  No 


Pen  No. 


Chick 
band  No. 

Adult 
band  No. 

Sex. 

^«     2 
L.P  h-o 

3  3  O< 

2^5: 

CD 

Hatched. 

Remarks. 

Hatching 
weight. 

Dead  in 
4  weeks. 

Matings. 

Pen  Records. — By  a  pen  record  is  meant  usually  a  monthly 
sheet;  but  in  some  cases  a  weekly  sheet  is  posted  in  the  pen,  and 
is  so  arranged  that  the  products  of  that  pen,  the  feed  consumed, 
and  the  condition  of  the  birds  for  a  given  period  can  all  be 
entered  on  one  record.  Th.e  following  form  shows  a  monthly  pen 
record  which  was  used  with  considerable  success  in  cooperative 
record  keeping : 

Monthly  Pen  Record. 

Pen  No Breed Number  of  females Number  of  Males 

Month .  . 


Rations. 

Suc- 
cu- 
lence 

Shell 

Grit 

Extra 
feed 

Hens 

Eggs 

Sickness, 
Mortality 

ff 

Date. 

No.l 

No.  2 

No.  3 

tnS      ? 
f"  P  CO  O 

p  p  >-*< 

8**    5: 

O 

Total 

• 

Weigh 
back 



Con- 
sumed 

Notes. — Leg  band  numbers 

Average  daily  production Total  income  from  eggs. 

Total  cost  of  feed Profit  or  loss  from  eggs 


109 
108 
107- 
106- 
105 
104 

-103 
102 
101 

-100 


-97 


LI 

n 

i 


FINAL  REPORT 

NUMBER  OF  EGGS 

Put  in= 

Infertile= 
With  dead  germs  = 

Broken  after  second  test= 

With  chicks  dead  in  shell- 

Pipped= 

- 

Crippled** 

Vigorous^, 

PER  CENT. 

machine 

Dead  germs  to  fertile  eggs= 

,fl 

from  the 

Dead  in  shell  to  fertile  eggs  = 
Crippled  to  fertile  eggs  — 

0 

1 

•g 

removed 

Vigorous  chicks  to  fertile  eggs  = 
Vigorous  chicks  to  eggs  left  in= 

6 

-.2 
• 

rhen  first 

mr  when 

machine  after  second  test= 
Vigorous  chicks  to  total  eggs  - 

1 

•te  hour  \ 

ite  hour  ^ 

M 
1 

1 

H 

fe 

jz; 

G 

5 

pj 

N 

co 

** 

lA 

co 

t. 

CD 

0 

o 

* 

§1 

ei 

458  RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 

Such  a  record  shows  at  a  glance  the  number  of  birds,  the  egg 
production,  and  the  cost  of  feed  consumed;  and  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  balance  this  sheet  and  find  the  profit  or  loss  from  the 
sale  of  the  eggs. 

An  Inventory. — In  order  to  ascertain  at  the  end  of  each  fiscal 
year  the  present  inventory  value  of  the  plant,  and  to  know  ex- 
actly how  much  money  was  spent  in  stock  and  equipment,  it  is 
important  to  keep  some  kind  of  inventory  record.  This  is  espe- 
cially necessary  when  adding  to  the  stock,  which  means  a  reduc- 
tion in  cash  for  a  time  with  the  possibility  of  increased  revenue  in 
the  future.  Such  a  record  can  easily  be  kept  on  a  sheet  of  paper 
ruled  into  five  columns,  the  equipment  values  being  inventoried 
under  the  following  five  heads:  Land,  buildings,  stock,  tools 
and  implements,  and  miscellaneous  equipment. 

With  the  value  of  these  inventoried  for  one  year,  the  only  work 
necessary  at  subsequent  stated  periods  is  carefully  to  revalue  the 
stock.  During  the  intervening  time  a  full  record  can  be  kept  on 
this  sheet  of  all  sales  and  all  purchases,  each  being  placed  in  its 
respective  column.  By  dividing  the  inventory  values  under  head- 
ings suggested,  it  is  possible  to  estimate  depreciation  or  gain  in 
value  in  each  department,  and  to  know  the  investment  in  each. 

Incubation  Records. — Where  artificial  hatching  is  carried  on 
to  any  great  extent,  a  simple  yet  complete  record  of  each  hatch 
is  necessary,  as  a  means  of  determining  whether  the  required 
efficiency  is  being  maintained,  and  also  the  better  to  point  out 
any  fault  in  operating  the  machines.  This  record  of  fertility  and 
hatching  percentages  should  be  kept  from  year  to  year  for  future 
reference.  Such  a  record  should  cover  the  following  facts : 

Number  and  name  of  machine. 
Number  and  kind  of  eggs  set. 
Date  set. 

Temperature  in  both  room  and  incubator,  taken  three  times  a  day. 
Moisture  in  the  incubator,  readings  taken  at  short  intervals. 
Dates  when  hatch  began  and  when  it  was  complete. 
Number  of  infertile  eggs  and  dead  germs  on  seventh  and  fourteenth  days. 
Figures  showing  efficiency  of  hatch:    Vigorous  chicks  hatched;  cripples 
hatched;  percentage  of  eggs  hatched;  percentage  of  fertile  eggs  hatched. 

A  simple  record  sheet  for  this  purpose  is  shown  on  page  456. 

Sitting  Records. — Where  hatching  is  natural,  there  should  be 
a  simple  but  accurate  record  of  the  different  broods  hatched  and 
the  time  when  the  hatch  is  expected.  The  entries  should  be  as 


IMPORTANT  RECORDS  TO  KEEP 


459 


S> 

<* 

"d 

t> 

<j 

H 

•<j 

0> 

Ot 

4^ 

CO 

to 

h-  « 

v.  Consumption 

g 

§' 

m't  Consumed 

» 

f 

o- 

0 

t 

O 

a 

o 

e 

H 

H 

Laid 

H 
O 
O 
00 

Cracked 
corn 

Wheat 

\ 

Oats 

Buck- 
wheat 

Corn 
meal 

Wheat 
bran 

Wheat 
middlings 

H 

Oil 
meal 

E 

Alfalfa 
meal 

RNI8H 

Meat 
scraps 

O 

Green  cut 
bone 

Oyster 
shell 

I 

Grit 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Outside 

li 

Inside 

N1NQ 
ATTJRE. 

MAKE  DAILY  RECORDS 

Date., 

Number  dead  

£ 

Number  dead 

IMPORTANT  RECORDS  TO  KEEP          461 

follows:  (1)  Number  of  nest  and  number  of  hen;  (2)  date  when  set; 
(3)  number  and  kind  of  eggs;  (4)  number  of  eggs  tested  out  on  the 
seventh  and  fou  teenth  days;  (5)  the  hatch  or  number  of  vigorous 
chicks  taken  from  the  nest. 

The  above  record  can  best  be  kept  in  a  small  pocket  notebook, 
for  nests  are  usually  in  places  where  it  would  be  impossible  to 
post  records  without  danger  of  loss  or  soiling. 

Brooding  Records. — Whether  brooding  is  carried  on  in  small 
outdoor  brooders  or  in  the  large  brooder  house,  if  the  poultry- 
man  wishes  to  know  just  how  efficient  his  system  of  brooding 
is,  he  must  keep  a  record  which  will  give  him  at  a  glance  the 
following  facts  pertaining  to  the  brood:  (1)  Number  of  chicks 
when  brood  began;  (2)  temperature  of  room  and  brooder,  taken 
three  times  daily;  (3)  daily  mortality;  (4)  amount  and  kind  of 
feed,  if  desired  (this,  however,  is  not  of  much  importance);  (5) 
total  mortality  up  to  a  certain  age;  (6)  percentage  of  brood  up 
to  that  age.  A  good  breeder  record  is  shown. 

Feeding  Records. — Where  very  detailed  and  accurate  records 
of  cost  and  amount  of  feed  consumed  are  desired,  the  method 
shown  in  the  form  on  page  459  will  be  found  advantageous. 
On  the  ordinary  farm,  a  feeding  record  on  the  monthly  pen  sheet 
will  be  sufficient. 

Labor  Records. — On  large  poultry  plants  where  many  men  are 
employed,  or  where  it  is  desirable  to  keep  a  record  of  the  time 
consumed  in  doing  a  certain  kind  of  work,  the  method  described 
will  be  satisfactory. 

Have  special  time  cards  prepared,  one  for  each  laborer,  for 
one  week,  with  his  name  written  upon  it.  The  cards  should  be 
ruled  horizontally  into  as  many  spaces  as  there  are  different 
kinds  of  work  to  be  recorded,  and  vertically  into  nine  columns. 
The  first  column  is  for  the  kind  of  work,  the  next  seven  for 
the  days  of  the  week,  and  the  last  one  for  the  total  number 
of  hours  spent  at  each  kind  of  work.  The  accompanying  form 
(p.  462)  shows  this  plan. 

By  making  a  different  distribution  of  labor,  or  by  eliminat- 
ing some  detail,  it  is  often  possible  greatly  to  reduce  the  cost  in 
caring  for  a  large  flock  of  birds.  Such  a  record  as  the  one  described 
will  aid  in  solving  this  problem. 

Young  Stock  Records. — It  is  advisable  to  keep  a  record  of 
all  young  stock  put  on  the  range,  and  to  check  up  this  list  when 
they  are  put  into  laying  quarters  in  the  fall.  Because  of  possible 


462 


RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 


loss  due  to  shrinkage  or  to  thieves,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  a  simple 
memorandum  of  the  number  of  birds  put  on  the  range  and  the 
total  number  taken  fiom  the  range.  Ascertain  from  these  num- 
bers what  percentage  of  loss  can  be  expected  in  the  future.  The 
need  of  better  preventive  measures  will  be  shown. 

Daily  Labor  Record  Card. 

[Designate  time  spent  in  minutes.] 

Date..  Name.. 


KINDS  OF  WORK 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

TOTAL,  HOURS 

Feeding 

Cleaning 



Building 

Seeding 

Hatching 



Rearing 





Miscellaneous 

Methods  of  Keeping  Records — There  are  three  methods  of 
keeping  poultry  records:  Sheet  records;  books  with  either  loose 
or  permanent  leaves;  and  a  card  file.  The  method  adopted  should 
be  light  in  weight,  compact,  and  portable.  There  should  be  little 
danger  of  loss  or  misplacement.  The  information  should  be 
readily  accessible  at  all  times. 

Of  the  above  methods  the  loose  leaf  records  with  a  strong, 
easily  detachable  binder  probably  offer  the  greatest  advantages, 
for  they  meet  all  requirements.  Each  sheet  may  be  used  inde- 
pendently, or  may  be  filed  vertically  in  a  drawer  and  used  like  a 
card  system.  The  great  disadvantage  of  the  single  sheet  file  is 
the  danger  of  loss  or  misplacement,  and  the  possible  injury  of 
some  of  the  sheets.  The  card  system  is  excellent;  but  a  great 
drawback  is  its  bulk,  and  the  impracticability  of  carrying  a  lot 
of  cards  to  the  pens  or  about  the  plant  when  making  notes  or 


ACCOUNTS  463 

studying  records  of  individuals.  Figure  206  shows  these  three 
systems.  The  post  binder  with  loose  leaves  is  undoubtedly  the 
best  for  general  use;  but  whatever  system  of  records  is  adopted, 
uniformity  in  the  size  and  style  of  the  sheets  must  be  maintained. 

ACCOUNTS. 

The  Poultryman's  Diary.— One  of  the  simplest  yet  best  records 
for  the  poultryman  to  keep  is  a  diary,  taking  time  regularly  to 
enter  the  chief  events  of  the  day,  such  as  any  special  work  which 
has  been  done  or  any  important  transaction.  Record  purchases 
and  sales  of  stock  or  products.  Such  a  diary  is  both  a  day-book 


FIG.    206. — Three  methods  of   keeping  records.      A,  Sheet  records,;  B,  loose  leaf; 
C,  card  index. 

and  an  account  book.  From  it  the  transactions  of  the  day  can 
later  be  ported  in  the  regular  account  books.  A  diary  of  this 
kind  is  very  useful  if  there  is  variety  in  the  daily  transactions. 
It  can  be  kept  year  after  year,  and  by  referring  to  the  same  date 
in  preceding  years  the  general  progress  and  season's  work  can  be 
determined. 

What  Accounts  Should  Show. — Account  books  for  a  year 
should  show  distinctly  three  things: 

1.  All  the  business  transactions,  showing  the  items  of  all 
money  expended  and  all  money  received.  This  will  tell  the 
poultryman  whether  or  not  his  business  has  been  conducted  at  a 
profit  or  loss,  and  the  amount  of  same.  If  at  a  loss,  this  loss  or 
waste  can  be  traced  to  one  of  the  different  branches  of  his  busi- 
ness. He  can  also  see  which  is  the  most  profitable  line  of  his 


464  RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 

work.  The  keeping  of  such  a  record  will  not  only  tell  the  poultry- 
man  just  where  he  stands  financially,  but  tend  to  develop  in  him 
a  spirit  of  economy. 

If  the  poultryman  has  no  time  for  this  work,  his  wife  or  one 
of  the  children  may  perhaps  be  interested  in  the  business  and 
may  keep  the  accounts.  A  good  way  to  cultivate  business  habits 
in  the  children  is  to  give  them  a  small  flock  of  birds  and  require 
them  to  keep  an  exact  record  for  the  year,  thus  ascertaining  the 
actual  profit  from  the  flock.  In  this  way  the  keeping  of  records 
and  accounts  will  gradually  become  a  mere  matter  of  routine. 

2.  The  system  of  accounts  should  include  a  yearly  inventory, 
the  importance  of  which  has  been  shown  on  page  458. 

3.  The  system  of  book-keeping  should  include  the  balancing 
of  the  books  at  stated  periods  to  determine  the  financial  con- 
dition of  the  plant. 

Methods  of  Accounting. — There  are  two  recognized  methods 
of  keeping  accounts, — namely,  single  and  double  entry.  The 
latter  involves  considerable  clerical  work,  as  separate  accounts 
are  kept  for  each  branch  of  the  business.  It  necessitates  entering 
every  transaction  twice,  once  as  a  debit  and  once  as  a  credit 
item.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  checking  against  mis- 
takes. Every  trial  balance  shows  just  how  each  department  of 
the  business  stands.  The  work  involved  is  so  great  that  it  is 
suitable  only  for  large  plants  where  one  person  is  employed  solely 
for  the  accounts  and  office  work. 

The  single  entry  is  very  simple  and  adapted  to  any  poultry 
plant.  In  this  system  entries  are  made  but  once,  every  trans- 
action being  either  a  debit  or  credit,  against  or  in  favor  of  the 
poultry  plant. 

In  this  system  the  inventory  value  is  placed  on  the  debit 
side  of  the  account.  Also  on  the  debit  side  are  entered,  as  they 
occur,  all  items  of  expense,  such  as  feed,  labor,  repairs,  stock, 
and  tools.  On  the  credit  side  of  the  accounts  are  entered  all 
products  sold  and  all  incoming  cash, — for  example,  eggs  and  fowls 
sold  or  consumed  at  home.  Such  an  account  may  run  for  a  month 
or  longer  before  balancing,  but  the  best  rule  is  to  balance  it  each 
month,  in  order  more  closely  to  watch  the  expenditures.  When 
it  is  balanced,  both  sides  of  the  account  are  added,  the  difference 
is  determined,  and  this  difference  is  entered  as  a  new  balance.  If 
the  credit  column  is  greater,  a  profit  is  shown;  but  if  the  debit 
column  is  the  larger,  the  difference  will  be  the  amount  of  loss. 


ACCOUNTS 


465 


Sample  Monthly  Sheet. 

DR. 


Date. 

Item. 

Feed. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Labor. 

Miscel- 
laneous. 

Total. 

1910 
Anr     1 

$3  00 

$3  00 

3  00 

3.00 

5 

3  25 

3  25 

8 

g 

Carpenter  work  on  brooder.  .  .  . 

$2.00 

$4.66 

2.00 
4  00 

10 

$8.00 

8.00 

10 

.72 

.72 

19 

5  75 

5  75 

20 

80 

.80 

25 

3  75 

3  75 

Total  

$13.80 

$8.00 

$2.00 

$10.47 

$34.27 

CR. 


Date. 

Item. 

Market 
eggs. 

Hatch- 
ing 
eggs. 

Market 
poul- 
try. 

Breed- 
ing 
stock. 

Total. 

1910. 
Apr    4 

$2  40 

$2.40 

10 
12 

1  pen  breeding  fowls  

4.32 

$5.00 

5.00 
4.32 

13 

1  hen  (home  use)  

$0.55 

.55 

14 

1.80 

1.80 

15 

8  dozen  eggs  (home  use),  at  24 

1.92 

1.92 

17 
19 

15  dozen  eggs,  at  23  cents  
7  dozen  eggs  (home  use),  at  23 
cents                      

3.45 
1.61 

3.45 
1.61 

19 
20 

300  eggs,  hatching  (home  use)  .  . 

$5.75 

"3.00 

5.75 
3.00 

23 

20 

7  dozen  eggs  (home  use),  at  23 
cents  

1.61 

'  "3.66 

1.61 
3.00 

30 

6  dozen  eggs,  at  22  cents  

1.32 

1.32 

Total 

$16.63 

$8.75 

$2.35 

$8.00 

$35.73 

On  a  wide  sheet,  place  the  credit  form  at  right  and  debit  at  left. 

Column  System. — It  is  often  desirable  to  itemize  the  ex- 
penditures and  receipts,  yet  not  increase  the  number  of  entries. 
This  is  easily  done  by  using  what  is  termed  a  compound  single 
entry  system,  which  consists  in  having  the  sheets  of  the  account 
book  ruled  in  a  number  of  vertical  columns  in  addition  to  that 
for  date  and  for  dollars  and  cents.  Each  of  these  columns  should 
represent  a  certain  kind  of  transaction.  For  example,  on  the 
debit  side,  the  columns  could  be  headed:  Feed,  labor,  stock,  im- 
plements, miscellaneous;  while  on  the  credit  side  the  headings 
could  read:  Eggs,  broilers,  breeding  stock,  and  miscellaneous. 
When  the  columns  are  footed  up  in  making  a  trial  balance,  one 
30 


466 


RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS  AND  ADVERTISING 


can  tell  at  a  glance  which  of  the  scheduled  items  is  the  heaviest, 
and  the  relations  between  the  different  sources  of  income  and 
expense.  This  system  reduces  labor,  for  it  is  unnecessary  to  write 
each  time  the  source  of  expense  or  income,  since  the  column  itself 
is  so  headed.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Column  System." 
In  keeping  records  and  studying  expenses,  those  of  labor 
and  feed  will,  as  a  rule,  be  found  the  heaviest.  In  some  cases 
labor  will  be  a  small  item,  as  the  poultryman  has  a  plant  of  such 
small  size  that  he  can  do  all  the  work  himself;  but  the  cost  of 
feed  is  continuous,  and  this  must  be  watched  carefully,  and  every 
attempt  made  to  keep  it  down  by  purchasing  feed  direct  from 
producer,  by  compounding  efficient  yet  economical  rations,  and 
by  cutting  out  sources  of  waste  in  feeding. 

Yearly  Summary  Sheet. 
DR. 


Date. 

Feed. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Labor. 

Miscel- 
lane- 
ous. 

Total. 

1910. 
January  

$11  25 

$18  00 

February.  .  . 

10  85 

$2  00 

March  

11  50 

20  00 

April  

13  80 

8  00 

May  

13  00 

June  

15  50 

July  

14  15 

August  

13  80 

15.25 

September  

15  00 

October  

16  10 

17.70 

November  

4  80 

18.85 

December  

13  75 

17.23 

Total  

$163  50 

$4fi  no 

$54.45 

$273.70 

CR. 


Date, 

Market 
eggs. 

Hatch- 
ing 
eggs. 

Market 
poul- 
try. 

Breed- 
ing 
stock. 

Total. 

1910. 
January.  .  .  . 

February.  .  .  . 

$2.35 



$24.00 

March  

20.66 

$6.50 

3.30 
3  50 

28.13 

May  

16.63 

8.75 

2.35 

8.00 

35.73 

June  

6.00 

4.50 
5.75 

4.25 
15  20 

8.00 

28.27 

August  

7.08 

2.00 

22.15 

8.00 

39.23 

September.  .  .  . 

9.10 



13.90 
10  80 

4.00 
3  00 

23.27 

November  

8.60 
8.17 



4.40 

785 

9.00 
15  00 

22.00 

Total  

12.56 
$152^17 

$27\50~ 

4.05 
$94.10" 

20.00 
$95.00 

36.61 
$368.77 

ADVERTISING  467 


ADVERTISING. 

The  advantages  of  advertising  must  be  decided  in  each  case 
by  the  poultryman  himself.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  adver- 
tising pays  when  it  is  rightly  done;  yet  an  immense  amount  of 
money  is  wasted  annually  by  poor  or  untimely  advertising.  It 
pays  best  when  one  has  a  surplus  stock  to  sell  with  no  available 
market.  If  well  planned  and  timely,  it  leads  to  and  greatly  in- 
creases sales,  which  means  a  larger  profit  or,  perhaps,  the  chang- 
ing of  an  apparent  deficit  into  a  profit.  On  the  whole,  advertis- 
ing pays  only  when  well  planned,  and  when  there  is  a  large  busi- 
ness supplying  an  abundance  of  products  and  customers  are  few. 
It  will  always  pay  in  an  enterprise  which  depends  on  a  few  sales 
of  choice  specimens,  for  in  no  other  way  could  possible  purchasers 
be  apprised  of  the  existence  of  such  products. 

How  to  Advertise. — There  are  many  methods  of  legitimate 
and  profitable  advertising — so  many,  in  fact,  and  so  simple,  that 
most  poultrymen  entirely  overlook  them,  and  think  that  the  only 
way  to  advertise  is  to  expend  a  lot  of  money,  with  no  assurance 
of  a  proportionate  return. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  ways  which  may  profitably  be 
employed  on  most  poultry  farms : 

1.  A  farm  and  home  of  neat  and  attractive  appearance. 

2.  Neat  and  attractive  appearance  of  team  and  wagons  when 
on  the  road. 

3.  An  attractive  and  "  catchy  "  name  for  the  farm. 

4.  A  conspicuous  yet  neat  farm  bulletin  board,  on  which 
products  for  sale  may  be  listed  and  attract  the  attention  of  pass- 
ers-by. 

5.  The  ownership  of  birds  having  heavy  egg  records,  and  the 
publication  of  such  records. 

6.  The  exhibition  of  pure-bred  stock  at  poultry  shows  and 
fairs  and  the  winning  oi  prizes. 

7.  A  neat  and  attractive  label  on  all  shipping  crates. 

8.  Clearly  printed  letter  heads  without  an  excess  of  printing. 

9.  Printed  circulars  and  cards  which  can  be  mailed  to  pros- 
pective customers,  displayed  on  exhibition  cages  at  shows,  and 
enclosed  with  all  correspondence. 

10.  Printed  blotters,  which  can  be  enclosed  in  correspondence, 
and  keep  the  breeder  and  his  work  constantly  before  the  eye  of 
the  prospective  customer. 


468  RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 

11.  Using  advertising  space  in  magazines  and  newspapers. 

12.  Agreeable  manners  toward  all  persons  interested  in  one's 
business.     This  is  often  overlooked,  and  would-be  buyers  are 
antagonized  or  driven  away  before  the  possibility  of  a  purchase 
can  be  discussed. 

The  eleventh  method,  that  of  advertising  in  magazines,  is 
one  of  the  most  expensive,  since  it  calls  for  a  definite  outlay  of 
money  with  no  definite  assurance  of  return.  It  should  be  done 
carefully  at  first,  but  it  is  the  only  real  way  of  reaching  the  major- 
ity of  poultry  purchasers. 

What  to  Advertise. — In  general  it  may  be  said  that  it  pays 
to  advertise  for  sale  any  product  which  is  so  nearly  perfect  as 
to  sell  readily  and  satisfy  the  purchaser,  yet  not  damage  the  repu- 
tation of  the  breeder.  The  poultry  products  generally  advertised 
for  sale  are  fancy  and  utility  stock  for  breeding,  eggs  for  hatching, 
and  day-old  chicks.  Dressed  poultry  and  market  eggs  for  food 
are  rarely  advertised,  since  there  is  a  steady  demand  for  them 
at  a  standard  price  through  the  regular  channels  of  trade. 

When  to  Advertise. — There  may  be  said  to  be  three  good 
times  to  advertise.  (1)  During  the  season  of  natural  demand. 
For  example,  when  the  purchasing  public  is  demanding  eggs  for 
hatching,  this  is  the  time  for  advertising  the  fact  that  one  has  such 
a  product  for  sale.  It  may  also  be  well  to  run  a  small  advertise- 
ment throughout  the  season  as  a  reminder  to  the  poultry  reader. 
Continuous  advertising  is  less  expensive.  Advertising  expressly 
to  bring  immediate  results  should  be  during  the  season  of  natural 
demand.  (2)  It  is  advisable  to  advertise  at  any  time  during  the 
season  if,  owing  to  crowding  or  some  other  cause,  one  has  a  sur- 
plus product  to  sell.  During  the  late  summer  and  fall  one  must 
get  rid  of  old  stock  to  make  room  for  incoming  pullets;  and  breed- 
ing cockerels  can  profitably  be  advertised  for  sale  from  fall  until 
the  breeding  season  in  the  spring,  the  heaviest  sales  being  in  the 
late  fall  and  early  winter.  (3)  It  is  well  to  advertise  when  one 
wishes  to  secure  some  particular  product  or  kind  of  birds.  Adver- 
tising for  products  wanted  is,  however,  less  profitable,  as  there  are 
usually  many  advertisements  offering  for  sale  just  the  product 
or  object  desired. 

Where  to  Advertise. — In  deciding  where  to  advertise,  several 
factors  must  be  considered  if  the  money  expended  is  to  bring  in 
the  greatest  number  of  sales. 

Under  most  conditions  the  highest  grade  of  poultry  journals 


ADVERTISING  469 

will  prove  the  most  profitable  advertising  mediums.  Second- 
grade  papers  with  a  limited  circulation  in  a  restricted  community 
rarely  prove  profitable. 

When  deciding  upon  the  exact  paper  with  which  to  make  a 
contract,  it  is  best  to  select  one  with  a  heavy  circulation  in  your 
own  part  of  the  country.  If  a  large  number  of  birds  are  for  sale, 
it  is  quite  customary  to  advertise  in  a  number  of  periodicals; 
this  reaches  many  more  people,  and  the  advertisement  is  more 
strongly  fixed  in  the  minds  of  possible  purchasers  if  they  see  it 
in  a  number  of  different  papers. 

Another  essential  point  is  to  select  a  paper  with  a  heavy  cir- 
culation among  the  class  of  customers  one  desires.  The  choice 
of  a  good  medium  is  an  important  consideration.  The  periodicals 
which  let  advertising  space  of  this  nature  can  be  grouped  under 
four  headings : 

1.  Country  and  suburban-life  papers.     Such  papers  reach  the 
highest  class  of  possible  purchasers.     The  advertising  rates  are 
usually  high;   hence  the  breeder  must  have  the   best  quality 
of  goods  and  be  prepared  to  give  satisfaction  if  he  uses  these 
channels. 

2.  General  agriculture  and  poultry  papers  circulate  among 
the  great  mass  of  poultry  keepers,  whether  they  have  only  back- 
yard flocks  or  extensive  egg  farms;  and  it  is  from  advertisements 
in  these  periodicals  that  the  great  majority  of  sales  materialize. 

3.  Another   class  of  papers,    termed   "  breed  and  specialty 
papers,"  deal  exclusively  with  one  or  more  closely-related  breeds 
of  poultry, — pigeon  magazines  being  a  good  example  of  this  class. 
Advertisements  in  such  papers  are  usually  read  only  by  the  best 
breeders  in  their  respective  lines,  and  the  goods  they  demand 
must  be  of  the  highest  grade  and  will  fetch  a  good  price. 

4.  A  method  of  advertising  has  recently  developed  which  is 
proving  very  remunerative  in  small  communities.    Breeders  who 
have  a  surplus  of  a  fairly  good  product  may  in  this  way  make 
good  sales.     It  is  to  utilize  the  special  space  for  poultry  adver- 
tising now  so  often  reserved  in  newspapers,  especially  in  the  weekly 
editions.     The  space  is  comparatively  cheap,  the  advertisement 
reaching  an  immense  number  of  small  poultrymen. 

Preparing  Advertisements. — Too  much  space  may  be  occupied, 
or  the  space  allotted  may  not  be  utilized  judiciously,  and  much 
of  the  information  to  be  given  may  be  overlooked.  In  writing  an 
advertisement  the  following  points  should  be  borne  in  mind: 


470  RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 

The  advertisement  should  be  concise  and  attractive;  these 
features  tend  to  give  the  reader  the  very  best  impression. 

The  make-up,  of  the  advertisement  should  be  "  catchy,"  at- 
tracting the  eye  of  the  reader  and  holding  it  long  enough  for  him 
to  take  in  its  meaning. 

It  should  be  terse,  which  means  that  much  information  and 
descriptive  matter  should  be  condensed  into  small  space;  for 
space  costs  money,  and  information  is  what  the  breeder  wishes 
to  disseminate. 

Every  statement  in  the  advertisement  should  be  true,  and  it 
should  be  so  worded  as  to  leave  no  exaggerated  impression  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader.  For,  when  sales  are  made,  the  birds  must 
come  up  to  the  advertised  standard.  Exaggeration  not  only 
makes  this  impossible,  but  dissatisfies  the  customer. 

The  advertisement  should  give  no  data  but  what  are  reason- 
able or  actually  possible.  The  fact  that  one  bird  in  a  flock  laid 
225  eggs  a  year  does  not  mean  that  a  strain  of  such  layers  can  be 
developed  from  her  eggs,  nor  that  the  average  of  the  breeder's 
entire  flock  will  equal  anything  like  this  figure. 

Advertisements  should  show  important  facts  pertaining  to 
the  specimens  for  sale, — as,  for  example,  a  record  of  winning  at 
poultry  shows;  a  brief  reference  to  utility  qualities;  a  statement 
concerning  past  breeding  and  records  made;  a  statement  as  to 
vitality  and  health;  the  name  of  strain,  if  such  name  has  become 
popular;  photographs  will  add  to  the  attractiveness, 

The  size  of  the  advertisement  depends  upon  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  products,  their  value,  and  the  money  available  for 
advertising.  The  better  the  quality  and  larger  the  quantity,  the 
greater  the  space  which  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  greater  the  value  of  the  products,  the  greater  usually 
is  the  profit;  hence  more  advertising  space  may  be  used. 

Small  advertisements  are  usually  the  more  profitable,  and 
it  cannot  reasonably  be  assumed  that  doubling  the  size  of  the 
advertisement  will  always  double  the  sales. 

Extremely  conspicuous  advertisements  are  warranted  only 
when  one  has  a  phenomenal  product  for  sale  and  wishes  to  enhance 
his  reputation  through  the  possession  of  such  a  product.  There 
are  numerous  instances  in  which  the  phenomenal  record  of  one 
bird  has  made  a  world-wide  reputation  for  the  breeder. 

Getting  the  Most  Out  of  Advertising.— If  the  heaviest  sales 
are  to  result  from  a  given  sum  spent  in  periodical  advertising, 


REVIEW  471 

a  "  follow-up  "  system  must  be  worked  out  and  the  breeder  and 
his  product  be  kept  continually  before  the  eye  of  the  prospective 
customer.  In  such  a  system  all  inquiries  by  mail  must  be  answered 
immediately.  A  short  personal  letter  is  best,  accompanied  by  the 
breeder's  card,  with  circulars  describing  matings  and  pointing 
out  the  good  qualities  of  the  strain.  Under  separate  cover  the 
annual  catalogue  should  be  forwarded, — if  the  breeder's  business 
is  extensive  enough  for  him  to  issue  such  a  booklet.  The  cata- 
logue should  describe  in  detail  all  matings  and  products  for  sale, 
and  give  past  winnings  and  other  records.  It  is  also  a  good  plan 
to  give  some  guarantees  as  to  financial  standing,  since  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  send  cash  with  the  order,  and  this  reference  makes  the 
purchaser  feel  more  secure. 

As  a  rule,  all  inquiries  should  be  followed  by  at  least  two 
letters  before  being  dropped;  if  these  fail  to  bring  a  response, 
additional  ones  would  in  most  cases  be  a  waste  of  money. 

A  record  should  be  kept  of  all  sales,  so  that  circulars  and 
catalogues  can  afterward  be  mailed  to  customers,  with  the  idea  of 
keeping  their  trade  year  after  year.  Such  a  record  can  be  kept 
on  filing  cards,  and  indexed  for  handy  reference.  Where  adver- 
tising is  carried  on  extensively  and  in  a  number  of  different  per- 
iodicals, it  is  well  to  tabulate  all  inquiries,  arranging  them  under 
the  name  of  the  paper  in  which  the  advertisement  was  noted. 
This  will  show  the  effectiveness  of  the  different  papers,  and  those 
which  are  bringing  in  no  return  at  all  can  be  dropped. 

If  a  business  is  to  prosper  year  after  year,  and  keep  its  old 
customers  as  well  as  acquire  new  ones,  the  breeder  must  live  up 
to  his  advertisement  when  he  fills  orders  resulting  from  it.  No 
business  will  long  prosper  if  the  customers  are  so  hoodwinked  that 
they  are  dissatisfied,  and  fail  to  come  back  every  year  for  addi- 
tional purchases.  The  unscrupulous  advertiser  must  depend  upon 
securing  enough  new  customers  each  year  to  make  up  for  those 
lost,  which  is  almost  an  impossibility.  It  must  be  remembered 
that,  after  all  is  said  and  done,  the  satisfaction  of  customers 
throughout  the  country  is  the  most  extensive  advertisement  a 
breeder  can  have,  and  the  most  profitable  as  well. 

REVIEW. 

1.  Give  eight  advantages  of  keeping  records. 

2.  What  four  points  should  be  considered  in  planning  records? 

3.  What  points  should  be  shown  in  a  breeding  or  mating  record? 


472  RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  AND  ADVERTISING 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  pen  record,  and  what  should  it  show? 

5.  What  should  an  inventory  show? 

6.  Describe  a  complete  incubator  record. 

7.  Describe  a  complete  brooding  record. 

8.  Describe  a  form  for  keeping  labor  records. 

9.  Enumerate  three  methods  of  keeping  general  poultry  records. 

10.  Give  five  features  desired  in  the  record  plan  selected. 

11.  Outline  the  possible  uses  of  a  diary  or  memorandum. 

12.  Discuss  the  three  things  which  a  poultryman's  account  should  show. 

13.  Name  and  discuss  two  general  methods  of  accounting. 

14.  Describe  and  give  advantages  of  the  column  system  of  single  entry. 

15.  Under  what  conditions  does  advertising  pay? 

16.  Outline  a  complete  system  of  advertising. 

17.  What  products  can  one  profitably  advertise? 

18.  When  is  it  most  profitable  to  advertise? 

19.  Give  three  things  to  be  considered  in  selecting  the  advertising  medium. 

20.  What  would  you  consider  in  preparing  an  advertisement? 

21.  What  should  determine  size  and  duration  of  advertisements? 

22.  How  would  you  get  the  most  from  an  advertisement? 

Reference. — A  System  of  Poultry  Accounting,  by  Robert  R.  Slocum,  U. 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular  176. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

THE  MANY  advantages  which  a  poultryman  or  farmer  derives 
from  exhibiting  his  poultry  and  products  will  be  discussed  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 

Exhibiting  for  Pleasure. — There  are  some  poultry  men  who 
keep  a  few  well-bred  birds  because  of  the  pleasure  they  derive 
from  mating  and  breeding  them  to  a  certain  standard,  for  the 
sake  of  the  competition  and  the  possibility  of  beating  the  other 
fellow.  They  are  usually  small  breeders,  and  at  the  small  poultry 
shows  they  form  the  majority  of  the  exhibitors.  But  whether 
exhibiting  for  profit  or  otherwise,  and  in  order  to  appreciate  the 
work  and  to  get  all  he  can  out  of  it,  the  breeder  must  have  some 
of  the  enthusiasm  in  competition  which  characterizes  the  true 
exhibitor  for  pleasure. 

Profit  from  Prizes. — The  profit  from  prizes,  whether  cash, 
cups,  or  other  articles,  is  an  advantage  to  be  considered.  The 
cost  of  preparing*  and  exhibiting  live  birds  is,  as  a  rule,  much 
greater  than  the  actual  value  of  prizes,  yet  the  satisfaction  of 
having  won  enhances  the  value  of  the  prize  in  a  way  that  cannot 
be  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  In  some  of  the  larger  shows 
sweepstake  prizes  of  considerable  value  are  offered  and  are  well 
worth  winning  from  a  monetary  point  of  view. 

Profit  from  Advertising. — Undoubtedly  the  greatest  benefit 
which  can  come  to  an  exhibitor  is  the  notoriety  which  his  birds 
achieve  when  he  is  successful  in  winning  some  of  the  leading 
prizes  in  that  particular  class.  It  brings  his  name  prominently 
before  prospective  purchasers  of  high-priced  birds,  which  creates 
a  demand,  and  permits  him  to  place  a  higher  value  on  each  of  his 
individual  birds.  It  makes  good  advertising  matter, — material 
which  speaks  for  itself,  and  is  no  mere  statement  without  suf- 
ficient backing. 

Profit  from  the  Sale  of  Birds. — Another  beneficial  result  of 
exhibiting  is  the  possibility  which  it  offers  of  disposing  of  birds  at 
a  price  in  advance  of  that  obtained  without  exhibition.  The 
prospective  purchaser  comes  to  the  show  looking  for  stock  for 
breeding  purposes,  and  the  exhibitor  goes  to  the  show  to  exhibit 

473 


474  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

such  stock.  In  fact,  the  greatest  success  which  can  attend  any 
show,  and  one  which  insures  its  future  support,  is  the  fact  that 
exhibitors  have  been  able  to  make  profitable  sales.  This  means 
also  the  taking  of  many  orders  in  the  future  for  eggs  to  be  used 
for  hatching,  and  for  day-old  chicks. 

Profiting  by  Comparison. — The  exhibitor  has  the  opportunity 
to  compare  his  products  with  those  of  his  contemporary.  He 
can  check  up  his  work ;  and,  knowing  something  of  the  methods  of 
his  fellow-breeder,  can  estimate  the  results  and  profit  by  the 
comparison.  This  opportunity  for  comparison  might  be  termed 
the  educational  feature  of  poultry  shows,  but  the  advantage  to  be 
derived  from  it  will  depend  upon  the  time  and  energy  devoted  to 
the  study.  These  shows  also  furnish  opportunity  to  make  a 
satisfactory  comparison  of  the  different  appliances  and  equip- 
ments for  poultry  craft. 

The  advantages  of  poultry  exhibition  are  numerous,  and  are 
increasing  every  year.  In  the  world  of  poultry  endeavor  ex- 
hibits have  come  to  stay,  and  will  have  a  permanent  influence  in 
perfecting  breed  types  and  making  them  popular. 

Development  of  Poultry  Exhibits. — Ever  since  distinct  types 
of  birds  were  first  recognized,  there  have  been  informal  gather- 
ings to  exhibit  birds  and  discuss  their  differences.  Authenti- 
cated records  of  poultry  exhibitions  show  that  they  were  first 
held  in  England,  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  These  meetings 
were  composed  almost  entirely  of  small  fanciers.  Poultry  was 
first  exhibited  in  America  at  agricultural  fairs,  where  prizes  were 
offered  for  common  barnyard  poultry,  no  distinct  line  at  first 
being  drawn  between  breed  types.  In  the  early  exhibitions  num- 
bers counted  for  more  than  quality.  With  a  clearer  distinction 
between  breeds  and  varieties,  and  with  an  ever-increasing  interest 
in  breeding  to  standard,  came  a  marked  change  and  improvement 
in  poultry  exhibitions — not  only  in  poultry  shows  in  connection 
with  agricultural  fairs,  but  in  the  evolution  of  the  typical  fancy  show 
which  has  been  everywhere  prominent  for  the  past  twenty  years. 

During  the  past  ten  years  these  smaller  shows  have  grown  in 
number  and  in  popularity.  The  smaller  shows  are  usually  con- 
ducted by  an  organization  of  a  few  poultry  growers  in  a  rather 
restricted  community.  Some  of  these  have  grown  rapidly  and  now 
have  a  world-wide  membership.  The  shows  of  moderate  size  are 
of  greatest  educational  value;  in  the  largest  shows  the  money 
from  prizes  is  the  main  object. 


TYPES  OF  POULTRY  EXHIBITIONS  475 

Poultry  shows  and  exhibits  have  so  increased  in  numbers  and 
importance  that  a  professional  can  now  start  early  in  the  fall  and 
make  a  circuit  of  the  larger  shows,  and  thus  have  birds  on  exhi- 
bition nearly  all  the  show  season. 

The  exhibitor  can  choose  from  two  types  of  shows, — namely, 
county  and  State  fairs  and  pure  poultry  exhibitions.  The  former 
are  patronized  to  quite  an  extent  by  the  small  breeder  who  has 
not  yet  attained  such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  will  permit  him 
to  compete  at  the  larger  and  special  poultry  shows.  They  are 
also  frequented  by  the  breeder  on  a  large  scale  as  a  means  of 
getting  his  birds  into  shape  for  the  winter  shows.  He  has  a 
chance  to  win  some  prizes,  which  will  offset  the  need  of  special 
effort  at  home. 

Types  of  Poultry  Exhibitions. — There  are  four  distinct  classes 
of  poultry  exhibits:  Standard-bred  poultry,  exhibits  which  rep- 
resent merely  utility  value,  exhibits  of  poultry  products,  and 
educational  poultry  exhibits. 

Standard-bred  poultry  predominates,  and  is  found  more  or 
less  in  all  poultry  exhibitions,  regardless  of  the  primary  object. 
The  breeding  of  standard-bred  poultry  should  be,  and  is,  the  chief 
aim  of  the  great  majority  of  poultry  breeders,  whether  they  seek 
ultimately  to  gain  distinction  by  breeding  prize  winners  or  by 
producing  market  eggs  or  the  best  market  poultry.  Hence  the 
exhibition  of  birds  which  are  standard-bred  as  to  color  pattern, 
weight,  and  shape  is  a  matter  of  vital  interest  to  all. 

Utility  Features. — Exhibitions  of  poultry  for  their  utility  or 
commercial  food  value  are  now  enjoying  considerable  popularity, 
and  are  becoming  a  regular  side  issue  of  the  standard  poultry 
exhibition.  Prizes  are  offered,  and  competent  judges  appointed  to 
award  them.  The  birds  are  arranged  in  two  classes, — live  and 
dressed;  each  may  be  subdivided,  according  to  their  commercial 
value,  as  fowls,  large  roasters,  light  roasters,  large,  medium,  and 
squab  broilers,  and  capons.  Prizes  are  awarded  according  to 
weight,  shape,  and  appearance.  In  view  of  their  increasing  popu- 
larity, these  exhibitions  will  no  doubt  be  extensively  developed  in 
the  near  future. 

Exhibitions  of  poultry  products  now  take  place  in  connection 
with  regular  shows,  and  are  becoming  even  more  popular  than 
the  utility  exhibits.  These  products  are  usually  eggs,  prizes 
being  offered  and  classes  arranged  for  white  and  brown  eggs,  for 
eggs  from  the  different  standard  breeds,  and  for  commercial  eggs 


476  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

showing  methods  of  crating  and  marketing.  In  awarding  pre- 
miums the  size,  weight,  shape,  color,  uniformity,  texture,  and 
cleanliness  are  all  taken  into  account.  Such  exhibits  can  be 
made  very  instructive  by  showing  improvements  in  grading  and 
marketing,  and  the  higher  prices  thereby  realized. 

Educational  exhibits  may  be  of  two  distinct  kinds, — college 
poultry  shows  and  poultry  extension  exhibits.  College  shows  are 
run  by  the  students  themselves  as  a  part  of  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  poultry  craft.  These  shows  usually  embrace  all  the  types 
of  exhibits,  and  are  purely  for  educational  purposes,  the  students 
forming  from  among  their  members  the  organization  necessary 
to  run  the  show  properly,  outlining  classes,  erecting  coops,  and 
staging  the  birds.  It  is  generally  the  custom  to  let  each  student 
make  entries  from  the  college  flock,  the  order  of  selection  and 
entry  being  drawn  by  lot.  In  connection  with  such  a  show,  there 
is  usually  a  competitive  judging  contest,  in  which  the  students 
are  given  a  certain  class  to  judge  by  comparison,  the  successful 
competitors  winning  cups  or  other  premiums  for  their  excellent 
work.  The  information  secured  and  the  experience  acquired 
by  such  an  exhibition  do  more  to  fix  breed  types  in  mind 
and  familiarize  the  student  with  the  objects  and  methods  of 
running  a  show  than  weeks  of  study  in  the  classroom  would 
accomplish. 

The  second  distinctive  educational  exhibit  may  be  termed 
"poultry  extension  exhibits  at  agricultural  fairs  and  poultry 
shows."  Such  exhibits  are  prepared  by  the  poultry  departments 
of  the  State  Agricultural  Colleges,  and  are  exhibited  at  all  leading 
fairs  and  shows  in  their  respective  States.  They  deal  more  with 
methods  than  with  the  actual  exhibition  of  birds,  although  the 
latter  is  done  to  some  extent.  The  housing  and  care  of  poultry  is 
taught  by  means  of  models  and  charts,  also  feeding,  sanitation, 
grading,  sorting,  and  packing. 

The  possibilities  in  such  work  are  almost  endless  and  the 
results  far-reaching,  for  they  demonstrate  to  the  farmer  the 
teachings  of  experimental  work  and  offer  to  the  colleges  and  experi- 
ment stations  an  opportunity  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  conditions 
in  different  communities.  This  same  kind  of  exhibit  is  often  used 
in  connection  with  educational  train  work,  where  a  part  of  a  car 
or  a  whole  one  is  devoted  to  a  travelling  poultry  exhibit,  which  is 
a  supplement  to  lectures  given.  Demonstrations  in  killing,  pick- 
ing, and  packing  are  also  given  in  connection  with  this  educational 


EXHIBITION  OF  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  477 

train  work.  Extension  teaching  in  connection  with  poultry  ex- 
hibitions is  as  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  there  are  wonderful  oppor- 
tunities for  its  further  development. 

EXHIBITION    OF   STANDARD-SEED   POULTRY. 

Preparing  Birds  for  Exhibition. — To  train  and  exhibit  poultry 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  win  success  calls  for  a  full  understanding 
of  the  requirements  as  well  as  years  of  experience  in  the  actual 
work  of  exhibiting.  The  amateur  should  begin  with  the  smaller 
shows,  where  there  is  little  competition,  and  where  he  can  gain 
the  absolutely  necessary  experience  without  becoming  discour- 
aged. Wherever  possible,  it  is  advisable  to  work  for  a  few  years 
with  an  experienced  and  successful  exhibitor  before  starting  out 
for  oneself.  It  is  the  same  in  exhibiting  as  in  other  lines  of 
work:  There  are  "  tricks  of  the  trade  "  which  would  require  years 
to  learn  by  experience,  also  sources  of  loss  which  should  be  learned 
under  careful  guidance.  Thus  the  road  to  success  is  learned  more 
quickly  and  more  certainly. 

Training  the  Birds. — In  order  to  get  the  birds  into  prime 
condition  and  to  have  them  appear  to  advantage,  it  is  the  custom 
to  place  those  to  be  exhibited  in  small  training  coops,  similar  in 
size  to  the  ones  used  at  the  show,  and  then  by  constant  attention 
accustom  them  to  seeing  people  and  to  being  handled.  On  large 
exhibition  plants  special  houses  are  provided  for  this  training; 
they  are  fitted  up  like  a  regular  showroom,  the  specimens  being 
selected  early  in  the  fall.  After  a  short  period  of  training  a  second 
selection  is  usually  made,  only  those  being  chosen  which  show  the 
best  characteristics  and  which  bear  handling.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  preparation  for  the  show  is  a  continuous  procedure,  begin- 
ning at  the  time  the  birds  are  hatched  and  lasting  throughout 
their  exhibition  life.  The  birds  designed  for  exhibition  are  hatched 
early,  usually  in  January  or  February,  so  that  they  may  attain 
maturity  and  standard  weight  by  the  time  of  the  fall  shows. 
They  are  housed  and  protected  from  weather  which  would  injure 
their  plumage  and  are  carefully  watched  for  scaly  legs  or  any- 
thing else  which  would  impair  their  show  value. 

Male  birds  require  special  training  to  help  them  to  maintain 
their  proper  symmetry  and  carriage.  The  best  way  is  to  con- 
dition them  in  small  pens,  about  four  feet  square,  on  the  floor 
of  the  conditioning  house,  and  to  place  with  them  three  or  four 


478  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

hens,  which  are  not  to  be  exhibited.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  two  males  be  placed  in  the  same  conditioning  pen.  Dur- 
ing this  training  period  the  birds  should  be  kept  free  from  lice, 
and  not  be  allowed  to  tear  their  combs,  wattles,  or  ear  lobes. 

The  floors  of  the  training  coops  should  be  covered  about 
four  to  six  inches  deep  with  clean  straw  litter.  Hard  grain 
should  be  fed  exclusively,  except  when  the  putting  on  of 
flesh  is  desired,  and  then  considerable  corn  and  a  wet  mash 
may  be  fed.  If  during  the  show  the  birds  are  to  be  fed  on 
some  special  commercial  ration,  it  is  well  to  accustom  them 
to  it  by  feeding  it  as  part  of  their  ration  for  the  two  weeks 
preceding  the  show. 

Success  at  the  show  will  depend  largely  upon  the  behavior 
of  the  birds  in  the  pens.  Of  two  birds  that  fully  come  up  to  the 
standard,  the  one  that  is  easy  to  handle,  that  is  gentle,  that  does 
not  tear  around  the  cage  when  the  judge  is  inspecting,  but  takes  a 
characteristic  pose  and  holds  it,  is  sure  to  get  the  highest  award. 
These  qualities  in  show  birds  are  almost  wholly  due  to  training, 
and  they  will  often  make  an  inferior  bird  come  out  ahead  of  one 
with  a  higher  score  that  lacks  these  traits. 

Conditioning  and  Selection. — Opinions  differ  widely  as  to  the 
extent  to  which  an  exhibitor  can  rightly  go  in  preparing  his  bird 
for  exhibition.  Conditioning  is  an  artificial  process;  therefore  it 
is  hard  to  say  where  the  line  shall  be  drawn.  Of  course,  if  the 
poultryman  is  going  to  the  trouble  of  exhibiting,  he  should  use 
all  legitimate  means  to  put  his  birds  into  fine  condition.  Obvi- 
ously it  is  perfectly  proper  for  the  poultryman  to  remove  dead 
or  broken  feathers  so  that  new  ones  may  grow  before  the  show, 
to  wash  birds,  to  clean  the  shanks  and  legs,  or  to  cram  for  heavier 
weight;  in  fact,  to  do  anything  which  will  naturally  put  the  bird 
in  the  best  possible  condition  for  exhibition. 

But  some  obviously  improper  procedures  are  in  vogue.  Illus- 
trations are:  Performing  surgical  operations  to  alter  the  shape 
of  the  comb  and  wattles,  removing  the  feathers  from  the  shanks 
of  clean-legged  breeds,  trimming  the  feathers,  dyeing  the  plu- 
mage, or  bleaching  white  plumage  with  bleaching  powder. 

Some  of  the  debatable  questions — excuse  for  which  depends 
largely  upon  the  moral  code  of  the  exhibitor — are  the  removal 
of  defective  feathers  in  soft  plumage  and  the  removal  of  stubs. 

Birds  selected  for  possible  exhibition  must  be  free  from  any 
blemish,  and  in  shape  of  body,  color,  and  pattern  must  conform 


EXHIBITION  OF  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  479 

to  the  standard  as  nearly  as  possible.  In  making  a  selection  the 
following  rules  will  usually  hold  good: 

Study  the  parts  of  the  head  particularly,  as  they  are  the 
most  easily  seen,  and  any  defect  in  comb,  wattles,  or  eyes  will 
quickly  be  noticed  by  the  judge  and  visitors. 

The  conformation  of  the  body  should  be  observed,  and  no 
bird  exhibited  which  has  not  the  typical  shape  for  that  breed. 

The  color  markings  are  important,  and  both  surface  and 
under  color  should  be  studied. 

In  choosing  between  two  or  more  birds,  the  one  having  a 
very  glaring  defect  should  be  discarded  for  one  with  minor  de- 
fects, even  though  in  greater  number. 

A  brassy  or  creamy  tint  in  the  plumage  of  a  white  bird  is  a 
serious  defect.  It  is  impossible  to  win  a  prize  or  even  create  a 
pleasing  impression  with  such  a  specimen. 

Large  birds  which  come  up  to,  or  a  little  above,  standard 
weight  should  be  given  the  preference  over  small  or  undersized 
specimens,  if  other  things  are  equal.  Birds  below  standard  weight 
may  possibly  be  brought  up  to  the  desired  point  by  feeding. 

Having  selected  specimens  according  to  these  rules,  they 
should  be  placed  in  training  pens,  and  continually  posed  until 
they  learn  to  stand  in  the  desired  position,  the  trainer  using  a 
small  round  stick  for  this  purpose.  Nervous  birds  require  a  much 
longer  time  for  proper  training.  The  more  frequently  the  birds 
are  handled,  the  more  quickly  will  they  become  submissive. 
Slight  defects  in  the  angle  of  the  comb,  wattles,  or  tail,  may  be 
wholly  or  in  part  corrected  by  persistent  manipulation  with  the 
fingers.  The  exhibitor  should  send  his  birds  to  the  show  abso- 
lutely clean;  this  means  the  washing  of  the  comb,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes,  and  of  the  shanks  and  toes,  with  warm  water  and  brush 
to  remove  dirt  from  between  the  toes  and  under  the  scales.  After 
they  are  clean,  they  should  be  sponged  with  clean  cold  water, 
then  rubbed  with  carbolated  vaseline,  and  immediately  wiped 
perfectly  dry  with  a  soft  cloth. 

Birds  with  soiled  plumage  should  be  washed,  which  greatly 
improves  their  appearance.  Washing  is  a  delicate  operation 
which,  to  be  well  done,  requires  some  experience.  The  amateur 
should  practise  on  cull  specimens  before  attempting  to  wash 
show  birds  (Figs.  207  and  208).  Washing  should  be  done  in  a 
room  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  85°  F.  Four  large  wash- 
tubs  are  required.  The  birds  being  immersed  in  the  first  tub 


480  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

with  only  the  head  out  of  the  water,  the  feathers  should  be  lath- 
ered with  a  good  wool  soap,  being  careful  to  work  the  soap  into 
the  feathers,  but  not  to  rub  across  the  grain  or  unduly  ruffle 
them.  Next  the  bird  is  thoroughly  rinsed  in  warm  clean  water, 
care  being  exercised  to  get  all  the  soap  out  of  the  feathers.  It  is 
customary  next  to  immerse  the  bird  in  a  tub  of  clean  cold  water 
to  which  have  been  added  a  few  drops  of  laundry  bluing,  working 
it  well  into  the  plumage.  There  must  not  be  too  much  bluing 
in  the  water,  or  it  will  give  a  blue  tint  to  the  ear  lobes  of  birds 
with  white  lobes.  Next  the  bird  is  thoroughly  rinsed  once  or 


FIG.  207. — Students  washing  live  birds  for  exhibition.     (Photo  from  Cornell  University.) 

twice  in  clean  cold  water.  The  important  point  in  washing  is  to 
remove  every  bit  of  the  soap,  or  it  will  make  the  feathers  curl 
after  drying.  Then  take  a  soft  towel,  and  by  patting  and  wrapping 
it  around  the  bird  dry  out  the  water.  Then  place  the  bird  in  a 
clean  coop  to  dry.  The  temperature  of  the  room — 85°  at  the 
start — should  be  gradually  cooled  to  about  70°.  Too  high  a 
drying  temperature  will  make  the  feathers  curl  and  have  a  ruf- 
fled appearance.  To  make  the  feathers  stand  out  from  the  body, 
a  little  laundry  starch  may  be  sifted  into  them.  An  amateur 
should  not  attempt  to  wash  and  fit  birds  for  exhibition  except 
under  instructions  from  an  experienced  person. 


EXHIBITION  OF  STANDARD-BRED  POl/LTRY  481 


WASH  WATER          *  RINSE 


FIG.  208.— Birds  to  be  exhibited  should  be  carefully  washed  and  conditioned.  A, 
White  Wyandotte  male  ready  for  washing.  The  bird  should  be  held  so  as  to  prevent  flut- 
tering. B,  All  feathers  should  be  completely  wet  and  white  soapsuds  worked  into  them 
clear  to  the  skin.  An  especially  hard  place  to  clean  is  the  back  and  base  of  tail.  C,  bird 
thoroughly  rinsed  and  ready  for  bluing  water. 
31 


482  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

Shipping  the  Birds  to  the  'Show. — Even  under  the  best  con- 
ditions birds  are  subjected  to  considerable  rough  usage  while 
going  to  the  exhibition;  hence  they  should  be  shipped  in  sub- 
stantial coops  so  built  as  to  provide  enough  space  for  the  bird 
yet  not  be  bulky  or  heavy.  They  should  be  strong  enough  to 
bear  considerable  weight  without  crushing,  as  they  may  be  piled 
high  with  other  packages.  They  should  be  protected,  yet  venti- 
lated on  all  sides  and  at  the  top,  thus  preventing  the  possibility 
of  smothering.  A  slatted  crate  covered  with  muslin  is  excellent. 

The  coops  should  be  plainly  labeled,  preferably  with  two 
labels,  and  addressed  to  the  secretary  of  the  poultry  show.  The 
secretary  of  a  show  usually  sends  to  exhibitors  special  shipping 
tags  with  a  designated  place  for  the  shipper's  name  and  address. 

All  exhibition  birds  should  be  sent  by  express.  It  is  not  only 
the  quickest  way,  but  they  change  hands  fewer  times  and  are 
delivered  directly  at  the  show  building. 

Attention  at  the  Show. — When  the  birds  are  delivered  at  the 
showroom,  the  exhibitor  should  be  on  hand  and  see  to  their 
cooping.  Immediate  cooping  is  necessary  to  success.  If,  from 
poor  management,  the  birds  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ship- 
ping crates  for  any  length  of  time,  their  plumage  becomes  soiled, 
and  they  are  apt  to  become  sick  or  get  out  of  condition. 

The  exhibitor  should  see  that  the  exhibition  pens  allotted 
to  him  are  protected  from  strong  drafts;  if  not,  he  must  provide 
curtains  of  light-weight  muslin.  He  should  also  look  his  birds 
over  carefully  when  putting  them  in  the  pens,  to  see  that  they 
have  made  the  journey  without  injury,  and  also  to  smooth  out 
any  rough  or  disordered  plumage.  After  the  birds  have  been 
judged  and  prizes  awarded,  the  exhibitor,  if  he  is  to  get  the  full 
benefit  of  his  exhibit  and  winnings,  should  display  labels  on  his 
pens,  giving  the  name  of  the  owner,  the  name  of  the  farm,  and,  if 
possible,  the  strain  or  breeding  back  of  his  birds.  There  is  some- 
times danger  that  valuable  birds  which  have  won  against  heavy 
competition  may  be  stolen;  therefore  it  is  advisable  to  lock  the 
pen  with  a  small,  neat  padlock.  This  calls  the  attention  of  the 
visitor  to  the  precautions  taken,  and  indicates  the  value  of  the 
particular  bird.  While  the  show  is  in  progress,  the  fancier  will 
make  use  of  every  opportunity  to  confer  with  his  fellow  breeders, 
to  become  acquainted  with  possible  customers,  to  take  orders 
for  future  shipments  of  birds  and  eggs  for  hatching,  as  well  as 
to  sell  the  birds  on  exhibition  in  the  showroom. 


EXHIBITION  OF  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  483 

The  exhibitor  should  personally  attend  to  cooping  his  birds 
for  the  return  journey;  for,  in  the  hurry  and  commotion  at  the 
last,  there  is  always  danger  of  mixing  the  birds,  but  personal 
care  will  prevent  it.  The  exhibitor  should  secure  his  premium 
cards  and  ribbons  for  future  reference  and  display.  It  is  unwise 
to  place  the  ribbons  won  on  the  outside  of  the  coop.  The  best 
plan  is  to  suspend  them  from  the  centre  of  the  coop  on  the  inside, 
or  against  the  back  on  the  inside,  where  they  can  readily  be  seen 
from  the  front.  On  returning  home,  the  birds  should  be  pub  in 
their  training  coops  and  kept  under  quarantine  for  ten  days,  to 
make  sure  that  they  have  caught  no  contagion  while  at  the  show. 
If  they  are  soon  to  be  sent  to  another  exhibition,  it  is  well  to  leave 
them  in  the  fitting  coops  during  the  intervening  time. 

There  are  many  advantages  and  possibilities  in  exhibiting, 
yet  there  may  be  resulting  losses.  The  most  common  are  from 
disease  contracted  from  neighboring  birds,  and  colds  resulting 
in  roup  due  to  improper  conditions  in  the  exhibition  rooms.  The 
exhibitor  must  be  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  such  troubles 
during  the  progress  of  the  show.  Quite  commonly  during  transit, 
either  the  shipping  coops  are  sent  to  the  wrong  place  and  cannot 
be  traced,  or  the  birds  die  from  severe  weather  or  rough  usage. 

Show  Associations  and  the  Work. — Poultry  shows  are  usually 
held  by  poultry  associations  which  may  or  may  not  be  incorpo- 
rated. The  small  show  is  usually  started  by  a  few  members  in- 
terested in  breeding  standard-bred  birds.  Larger  shows,  however, 
are  started  by  an  organization  incorporated  with  the  object  of 
holding  shows.  Such  an  association  adopts  a  constitution  and 
by-laws  and  elects  annually  its  regular  officers,  usually  a  presi- 
dent, vice-president,  secretary,  and  treasurer.  It  also  usually 
elects  or  appoints  an  additional  officer,  known  as  the  show  sec- 
retary, who  is  directly  responsible  for  the  financing  and  operation 
of  the  show  itself.  He,  in  turn,  appoints  his  assistants  and  super- 
intendents, the  need  of  these  and  their  number  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  show.  Many  of  the  larger  shows  are  the  outgrowth 
of  small  local  shows  held  under  the  auspices  of  a  small  group  of 
breeders.  In  some  sections  of  the  country  the  small  poultry  show 
is  gaining  favor  rapidly. 

The  first  duty  of  the  superintendent  of  the  show  and  his 
assistants  is  to  write  and  issue  the  premium  list,  which  designates 
the  classes  into  which  entries  must  be  divided,  also  the  premiums 
which  will  be  paid  to  the  winners.  Such  a  premium  list  should  be 


484 


EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 


in  the  hands  of  the  exhibitors  at  least  two  months  previous  to 
the  show.  The  superintendent  should  also  devote  as  much  space 
as  possible  to  a  commercial  exhibit  of  poultry  utensils,  feed,  and 
appliances,  for  such  space  is  usually  a  source  of  revenue,  as  well 
as  an  educational  feature  of  the  show.  He  should  also  arrange 
for  and  secure  as  many  special  premiums  and  prizes  as  possible, 
as  these  will  heighten  interest  in  the  different  classes  and  compe- 
titions. He  must  also  set  aside  certain  areas  for  special  non- 


Fio.  209. — Baltimore  Poultry  Exhibit,  showing  plenty  of  light   and  wide  aisles,  two 
important  factors  in  a  successful  poultry  show. 

competitive  displays,  since  these  add  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  show  as  well  as  bring  in  revenue. 

One  of  the  first  duties  of  the  management  is  to  secure  a  suit- 
able place  for  the  show  (Fig.  209).  This  in  itself  is  often  a  hard 
proposition,  because  the  majority  of  buildings  do  not  have  rooms 
suited  to  the  purpose,  or  the  price  asked  is  prohibitive,  espe- 
cially for  the  small  shows.  The  older  associations  usually  hold 
their  annual  shows  in  the  same  building  year  after  year,  and  a 
place  for  the  show  need  not  be  considered.  As  soon  as  the  hall 
is  secured,  the  pens  must  be  planned  and  arranged,  and  spaces 
set  aside  for  commercial  exhibits  and  special  displays.  In  making 
the  floor  plan  of  the  exhibition,  these  considerations  must  be 
borne  in  mind : 


EXHIBITION  OF  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  485 

Arrange  the  aisles  and  doors  so  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  possibility  of  strong  drafts  of  air  blowing  down  the  aisles 
and  on  the  birds  in  the  pens. 

Plan  for  comparatively  wide  aisles,  in  order  to  accommodate 
the  visitors  without  crowding. 

So  arrange  the  aisles  that  the  visitors  can  systematically 
make  trips  through  the  entire  exhibit  with  the  least  possible 
retracing  of  steps. 

Previous  to  the  show,  the  manager  should  make  all  prepara- 
tions for  the  immediate  cooping  of  the  birds  when  they  reach 
the  exhibition  hall,  also  for  feeding  them  during  the  show.  In 
the  larger  shows  this  privilege  of  feeding  the  birds  is  often  given 
to  one  of  the  larger  concerns  that  manufacture  poultry  feed,  and 
they  often  take  the  entire  responsibility  of  cooping  and  feeding 
for  a  merely  nominal  sum, — sometimes  for  the  advertising  value 
alone. 

Arrangements  for  cleanliness  during  the  show  must  also 
be  made.  This  involves  the  cleaning  of  the  pens  and  the 
placing  of  fresh  litter, — usually  consisting  of  shavings  or  cut 
straw, — and  also  the  daily  spraying  of  the  pens  with  a  good 
disinfectant. 

As  soon  as  premiums  have  been  awarded,  the  larger  poultry 
shows  publish  a  catalogue  of  exhibitors  and  winners,  which  is  a 
great  advertisement  for  the  exhibitors  and  a  very  essential  feature 
of  the  purely  financial  show. 

One  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  superintendent  is 
to  secure  competent  judges,  and  the  greatest  care  must  be 
exercised  to  choose  men  of  experience,  integrity,  and  force  of 
character. 

Selection  of  Judges. — Realizing  the  desirability  of  having 
reliable  judges  always  available,  from  among  whom  secretaries  of 
shows  can,  if  they  desire,  make  their  choice,  the  American  Poul- 
try Association  has  organized  a  licensed  bureau  of  judges,  composed 
of  all  the  available  judges  of  poultry  of  good  character  who  care  to 
register. 

It  should  be  the  duty  of  every  secretary  so  to  manage  his 
exhibit  that,  during  the  time  the  judges  are  performing  their 
work,  it  will  be  impossible  for  any  unscrupulous  exhibitor  pur- 
posely or  otherwise  to  bias  in  any  way  the  decision  of  the  judges. 
The  best  plan  is  to  bar  all  persons  except  the  judges  and  their 
secretaries  from  the  showroom  during  the  time  that  judging  is 


486  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

going  on.  In  order  to  stamp  a  higher  character  on  all  poultry 
exhibitions,  judges  and  superintendents  of  shows  should  mete 
out  severe  punishment  on  all  cases  of  faking  which  come  to  their 
knowledge. 

EXHIBITIONS  OF  POULTRY  PRODUCTS. 

The  competition  of  classes  for  dressed  poultry  and  eggs  is 
now  coming  into  prominence  at  most  poultry  shows,  and  is  an 
important  feature  both  from  the  educational  and  the  commer- 
cial standpoint.  Such  classes  will  draw  a  larger  number  of  ex- 
hibitors and  interested  visitors,  and  prove  a  most  attractive  part 
of  the  exhibit  to  the  visitors,  many  of  whom  have  no  appreciation 
of  the  finer  points  of  a  standard-bred  bird,  but  do  appreciate  good 
eggs  and  fine-looking  poultry. 

It  is  a  much  simpler  proposition  to  judge  such  exhibits  than 
it  is  to  award  prizes  to  live  birds.  The  conflicting  characteristics 
are  relatively  few,  they  are  in  quality  only,  and  are  usually  seen 
at  a  glance.  In  listing  such  classes,  the  publication  of  the  score 
card  to  be  used  in  awarding  the  premiums  will  help  the  exhibitor 
to  make  his  entries,  and  lead  to  a  more  uniform  and  higher  grade 
of  exhibit. 

JUDGING. 

By  judging  is  meant  deciding  authoritatively  upon  the  respect- 
ive merits  of  the  birds  displayed.  Such  authority  is  invested 
in  judges,  of  whom  several  are  usually  employed,  the  number 
varying  with  the  number  of  the  entries.  Each  judge  takes  the 
classes  with  which  he  is  best  acquainted,  although  there  are  judges 
who,  after  extensive  experience,  can  intelligently  decide  upon 
points  of  merit  in  almost  any  class. 

The  objects  of  judging  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

1.  To  compare  the  degree  of  perfection  attained  by  the  speci- 
mens to  be  judged  with  some  recognized  and  authorized  standard. 
From  this  standpoint  the  judges'  decision  is  accepted  almost 
absolutely  by  exhibitors  as  determining  the  efficiency  of  their 
breeding  and  the  degree  in  which  they  have  approached  standard 
requirements. 

2.  To  compare  the  relative  merits  of  individuals  or  groups 
of  individuals  entered  in  one  class,  or  which  are  competitors. 
This  kind  of  judging  is  seen  at  most  poultry  shows,  and  results 
in  the  competitors  taking  rank  in  the  order  of  their  excellence. 


JUDGING  487 

3.  To  fix  in  the  mind  of  the  exhibitor  the  standard  require- 
ments. This  may  be  termed  an  educational  purpose  to  be  carried 
out  under  supervision  or  by  the  individual  himself. 

The  Principles  of  Judging. — Many  qualities  are  needed  to 
make  a  successful  judge,  and  in  judging  a  show  satisfactorily 
there  are  important  points  which  in  many  contests  are  overlooked. 
The  observance  of  these  at  the  start  will  insure  just  decisions, 
which  satisfy  the  exhibitor,  and  without  which  no  poultry  show 
can  continue  to  be  successful  year  after  year. 

A  full  knowledge  of  standard  requirements  and  disqualifica- 
tions is  necessary. 

Consistency  in  judging  is  essential,  and  is  one  of  the  chief 
qualifications  of  a  good  judge.  Some  judges  have  a  certain  stand- 
ard fixed  in  their  minds,  and,  after  a  few  years,  an  exhibitor 
under  such  a  judge  can  select  a  type  which  he  feels  sure  the  judge 
will  consider  the  best.  This  is  but  natural;  hence  it  is  desirable 
to  change  the  judge  from  time  to  time  to  insure  impartial  treat- 
ment. 

Honesty  and  justice  in  making  decisions  form  another  very 
important  requisite. 

The  development  of  a  code  for  judges  will  promote  efficiency 
and  save  much  time.  A  simple  method  would  be  to  make  light 
marks  on  the  display  cards  while  judging  to  indicate  certain 
defects. 

A  natural  liking  for  the  work  is  helpful,  for  greater  concen- 
tration of  effort  is  sure  to  follow. 

Methods  of  Judging. — There  are  two  general  methods  of 
judging  poultry, — namely,  by  comparison  and  by  scoring. 

Judging  by  comparison  is  the  natural  method  of  comparing 
specimens  as  a  whole,  giving  no  one  part  or  combination  of  parts 
a  numerical  value,  but  awarding  the  highest  prize  to  the  specimen 
showing  the  greatest  number  of  good  qualities  which,  taken  con- 
nectively,  surpass  all  others. 

Comparison  judging  is  the  method  in  use  for  the  award  of 
premiums  at  nearly  all  poultry  shows.  Its  chief  advantage  is 
the  rapidity  with  which  one  can  judge  a  large  class.  Even  at  the 
first  study  of  the  specimens  in  a  class  one  can  discard  all  those 
with  marked  defects,  and  by  comparing  several  different  groups 
the  poorer  ones  are  gradually  eliminated,  leaving  only  the  best. 
Premiums  are  awarded  more  justly  and  satisfactorily  by  this 
method  than  by  scoring;  for  birds  of  inferior  type  often  make  a 


488  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

high  score,  owing  to  the  aggregate  value  of  the  different  parts  in 
combination,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for 
two  judges  to  cut  in  exactly  the  same  proportion  each  time. 
In  comparison,  each  judge  has  his  own  system  of  marking  defects, 
and  by  going  over  a  class  a  few  times  he  can  rapidly  check  off 
the  finest  birds.  The  skill  of  the  judge  depends  upon  his  system 
of  checking  and  his  knowledge  of  standard  requirements,  com- 
bined with  an  ability  to  size  up  the  form  and  glaring  defects  of 
a  bird  at  a  glance. 

Scoring  is  a  much  more  formal  method  of  judging.  It  is  based 
upon  the  estimated  numerical  value  of  the  specimens.  This  is 
obtained  by  giving  to  each  part  a  value  representing  its  degree 
of  perfection. 

Scoring  requires  a  standard  score  card  on  which  a  value  is 
assigned  to  each  part  separately  considered.  This  method  is  in 
use  at  some  of  the  smaller  poultry  shows  which  are  run  prima- 
rily for  educational  purposes,  and  is  also  used  by  individuals 
to  determine  the  relative  value  of  their  own  specimens.  It  is 
also  a  part  of  the  course  of  instruction  in  colleges  and 
agricultural  schools,  being  used  to  call  direct  attention  to  merits 
and  defects. 

The  chief  advantage  of  this  system  is  that  it  calls  attention 
to  every  part  of  the  specimen  and  to  each  individual  defect. 
Its  purpose  is  educational.  Another  superiority  which  the  score 
card  possesses  is  that,  when  intelligently  used,  it  forms  a  complete 
list  of  defects  with  their  location,  and  this  is  valuable  to  the 
breeders  for  future  reference. 

The  strong  feature  of  the  score  card  is  that  numerical  values 
represent  perfection  of  the  different  parts  and  of  the  whole. 
As  a  tabulated  record  the  success  of  any  score  card  must 
depend  upon  the  accuracy  with  which  the  specimen  is  divided 
into  its  component  values.  A  disadvantage  is  that  it  is  impos- 
sible for  all  judges  to  view  a  defect  in  the  same  light,  and  to 
cut  in  the  same  proportion.  Under  the  scoring  system  two 
judges  may  arrive  at  the  same  total  value,  yet  analysis  of  their 
score  will  show  considerable  variation  in  their  cuts  for  indi- 
vidual defects. 

Types  of  Score  Cards. — The  general  types  of  score  cards 
now  in  use  are  here  briefly  described,  so  that  the  student  or  poul- 
tryman  may  apply  them  to  his  own  specimens,  whether  birds  or 
poultry  products,  and  get  some  idea  of  the  merits  of  each. 


JUDGING 


489 


Standard- Bred  Poultry. — Two  kinds  of  score  cards  can  be 
used  in  scoring  standard-bred  poultry, — namely,  the  standard 
score  card  and  the  decimal  score  card. 

The  standard  score  card  is  the  official  score  card  of  the  Amer- 
ican Poultry  Association,  and  is  as  follows: 

Student's  Official  Score  Card. 
Class  No.  1 — American  Breeds. 


Date    

Entry  No Coop  No Band  No 

Owner     Breed     Sex 

Estimated  weight    Corrected  weight  

Student's  name    Section  . 


Scale  of  Points 


Perfection. 

Student's 
estimate. 

Corrected. 

Shape 

Color 

Total 

Shape 

Color 

Shape 

Color 

3 

2 
3 
4 
6 
4 
5 
3 

3 

4 
6 
6 
6 
5 
5 
3 

8 
6 
4 

6 

8 
6 
9 
10 
12 
9 
10 
G 
6 

Symmetry      

Weight  or  size  

Condition  
TT     i  f  Beak 

Head\Eyes:  

Comb 

Wattles  and  ear  lobes  
Neck 

Wings                 

Back             

Tail         

Breast     

Body  and  fluff 

Legs  and  toes  

Total 100 

Score •  •  • 


Total  cuts 


Instructor 


Full  directions  for  the  use  of  the  above  score  card  can  be 
found  in  "  The  American  Standard  of  Perfection." 


490  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

The  decimal  score  card  is  so  designed  as  to  give  to  each  part 
its  proportionate  rank,  the  specimen  being  divided  into  ten  com- 
ponent parts,  each  of  the  same  value. 

In  using  the  standard  score  card,  parts  which  fall  below  the 
requirements  are  deducted  from  the  perfection  value  in  propor- 
tion to  the  ratio  in  which  they  drop  below  the  standard.  When 
the  scoring  is  complete,  the  cuts  are  added,  and  the  amount 
subtracted  from  100,  which  gives  the  total  score  of  the  bird. 
Ties  are  quite  a  common  occurrence,  but  they  need  not  be  scored 
or  decided  unless  it  is  necessary  to  determine  an  award. 

The  standard  score  card  sets  so  much  value  on  color  mark- 
ings that  its  use  inclines  one,  if  not  careful,  to  overlook  those 
factors  of  body  shape  and  apparent  vitality  which  make  up  the 
utility  or  commercial  value  of  the  birds.  It  is,  however,  true 
that  purity  of  breeding — hence  of  color  pattern — to  a  certain 
extent  promotes  uniformity.  It  is  also  true  that  by  studying 
color  pattern  the  breeder  of  standard  poultry  is  led  to  a  closer 
study  of  the  conformation  of  the  body. 

The  tendency  is,  and  has  been,  to  sacrifice  shape  and  size  for 
fine  feathering,  which  in  the  end  lowers  the  commercial  value  of 
the  breed  or  strain.  Hence  if  greater  stress  were  laid,  in  the  stand- 
ard score  card,  upon  conformation  of  the  .body,  with  the  view  of 
increasing  the  utilitarian  value  of  the  breed,  it  would  increase  the 
production  of  standard-bred  birds  by  the  general  farmer  or  small 
poultryman,  who  must  get  his  living  by  selling  his  birds  for  market 
purposes. 

The  perfect  bird  of  any  breed  is  the  one  which  shows  perfection 
in  feathering.  The  utility  and  standard-bred  white  Leghorns  are 
good  examples  of  this  divergence  of  values.  The  fancy  Leghorn 
is  a  rather  small,  dainty  bird,  with  small  comb  and  wattles  and 
rather  short  body;  while  the  Leghorn  which  yields  the  highest 
profits  from  the  sale  of  eggs  is  a  larger  bird,  of  heavier  and  coarser 
development,  with  long  body  and  larger  comb.  Such  a  divergence 
should  not  exist;  standard-bred  birds,  to  rank  as  such,  should  have 
the  typical  shape  and  size  developed  to  their  highest  degree. 

Score  Card  for  Egg  Type  of  Live  Poultry.— This  score  card  is 
of  use  to  the  breeder  of  poultry  who  wishes  to  breed  for  maximum 
egg  yield.  It  fixes  in  his  mind  the  external  characteristics  of 
the  bird  which  are  significant  of  the  egg  producer.  The  values 
given  the  component  parts  signify  the  relative  importance  of  each 
part  in  selecting  the  layers  and  nonlayers. 


JUDGING  491 


Utility  Score  Card  for  Live  Poultry. 
Commercial  egg  production  the  primary  object. 

Date Exhibitor 

Entry  No Breed Age  .  .  . 


Description.  Counts.   Cuts. 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE (25)        

Form,  compact  and  symmetrical,  with  no  undue  development  in  any  part, 

as  excessive  fat  growth,  abnormal  leg  development,  or  extra  long  neck.. .      10          

Quality,  texture  of  comb  fine,  skin  and  flesh  soft  but  not  fat,  skin  mellow 

and  not  too  thick.     Body  plump  and  skin  tight,  not  loose  and  flabby.  .  .        7         

Temperament,  vigorous  constitution,  active,  not  lazy.    A  nervous,  energetic 

temperament  is  associated  with  activity 8         

HEAD  AND  NECK 15 

Head  medium  to  large  and  broad 3  

Eyes  full  and  prominent;  bright,  showing  vigor 3 

Comb  and  wattles  medium  to  large  in  size,  and  bright  red  in  color.     Comb 

firmly  fastened  to  the  head.     Comb  of  single-comb  White  Leghorn  large  5  

Neck  medium  in  length  with  full  hackle 4 

BODY (50)        

Hind  quarters  greatly  developed,  with  heaviest  part  of  the  body  carried 

back  of  the  hock  joint.    V-shaped  when  viewed  from  side,  top,  and  front . .      15         

Breast  moderately  full  and  wide 4 

Back  wide  and  long,  showing  great  depth  from  centre  of  back  to  point  of 

keel 5 

Fluff  abundant,  fine,  and  lying  close  to  the  body 3 

Tail  carried  rather  high  and  well  spread 2 

Feathers  soft  and  held  close  to  the  body 2 

Wings  held  well  up  and  carried  close  to  the  body 3         

Lay  bones  soft,  pliable,  and  wide-spread;  low-producing  females  and  all 
females  during  seasons  of  low  production  show  these  bones  much  con- 
tracted and  hardened 18 

LEGS (10)       

Legs  straight,  wide-spread,  especially  at  and  above  the  hock  joint 5         

Length  medium  to  short ;  long  legs — giving  the  bird  a  stilted  appearance — 

are  usually  associated  with  lack  of  vitality  and  low  production 2         

Color  of  yellow,  bluish  black,  or  flesh,  depending  upon  breed  characteris- 
tics, yellow  to  have  the  preference 1  

Shanks  free  from  feathers 2 

Total 100 

Final  score Judge 

This  score  card  can  be  used  in  two  ways, — for  instruction  con- 
cerning the  fixing  of  egg  characteristics  and  for  comparison  of 
breeders  when  selecting  for  the  breeding  pen. 

In  using  this  score  card  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  if  the 
poultryman  is  selecting  for  egg  type,  vitality  should  be  the  first 
consideration;  and,  while  certain  features  are  usually  associated 
with  heavy  egg  production,  yet  the  trap  nest  is  the  only  sure  way 
of  finding  it. 

Score  Card  for  Dressed  Poultry. — This  may  be  used  in  several 
ways :  For  instruction  concerning  the  meat  type ;  by  the  producer 
in  grading  dressed  poultry  for  shipment;  by  commission  men  in 


492  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

determining  value  of  shipments  received;  and  at  poultry  shows  in 
awarding  premiums  to  dressed  poultry.  It  will  help  the  producer 
to  raise  and  market  a  more  uniform  type  of  dressed  birds,  and  will 
indicate  to  him  the  special  points  in  killing  and  packing,— factors 
which  result  in  a  higher  market  price. 

Score  Card  for  Dressed  Poultry. 


Date Exhibitor 

Entry  No Breed Age 

Average  weight Market  type 


Description. 
Any  sign  of  poor  health  or  diseased  condition  is  a  disqualification.     Lack  of  vigor  is 

a  serious  defect.  Counts.  Cuts. 

CONDITION (40) 

Weight,  perfection  being  the  highest  weight  allowable  in  a  given  class 15         

Plumpness,  a  full  plump  development  in  all  parts,  especially  breast  and 

thighs 15 

Color  of  shank  and  skin,  according  to  market  requirements:  yellow,  white, 

and  blue  usually  preferred  in  the  order  named 10 

KILLING  AND  DRESSING (40) 

Manner  of  sticking,  or  bleeding.     Perfection  is  in  the  throat.     For  behead- 
ing cut  five  points.     For  exposed  bleeding  cut  three  points 10 

Manner  of  picking.     Dry  picking  scores  highest.    For  scalding  cut  three  to 

ten  points,  depending  upon  condition 15 

Completeness  of  picking 10 

Cleanliness  and  appearance  of  finished  carcass .  «• 5 

PACKING  AND  PACKAGE (20) 

Manner  of  packing — efficiency,  5  points;  uniformity,  5  points 10 

Package,  neat,  substantial,  and  attractive.. 5 

Labeling  or  guarantee 5  

Total 100 

Final  score Judge 

Score  Card  for  Market  Eggs. — This  brings  out  the  desirable 
points  in  first-class  market  eggs.  Such  a  score  card  may  be  used 
in  different  ways:  For  instruction  as  to  market  egg  requirements; 
by  the  producer  and  shipper  to  keep  in  his  mind  the  importance 
of  grading  and  better  methods  of  packing;  at  poultry  shows  in 
awarding  premiums  for  commercial  egg  exhibits. 

Score  Card  for  Market  Eggs. 

Date Exhibitor 

Entry  No Breed Age 

Weight  per  dozen  in  ounces 


FRESHNESS. 


Description.  Counts.  Cuts. 


(30) 


Size  of  air  cell,  perfection  is  one-eighth  inch  or  less  in  depth.  Cut  five  points 

for  each  additional  eighth  inch  in  depth 20 

Natural  shell  lustre,  lack  of  same  due  to  washing  or  age  is  a  serious'  de- 

fect 10  


JUDGING  493 

Counts.  Cuts. 

WEIGHT (20) 

Weight  of  total  sample,  perfection  is  27  ounces  or  more  per  dozen.  Cut 
one  point  per  dozen  for  each  ounce  under  weight.  Overweight  is  not  a  de- 
fect   10 

Uniformity  of  sample,  all  eggs  making  up  a  given  sample  should  be  of  the 

same  weight 10 

COLOR (20) 

Color  of  total  sample,  pure  white  or  brown  is  perfect.  Creamy  or  tinted 
white  eggs,  a  defect.  Dark  brown  eggs  have  the  preference^  over  light 

brown .      10 

Uniformity  of  sample,  all  eggs  in  sample  should  be  of  same  tint.    Cut  one 

point  for  each  egg  varying  in  color  from  average  color  of  sample 10         

SHAPE (10) 

Egg  shape,  the  ratio  of  the  large  to  the  small  diameter  is  about  one  to  one 

and  one  fifth;  this  varies  slightly  with  different  breeds 5 

Uniformity  of  sample,  cut  one  point  for  each  egg  varying  from  the  average 
shape  of  all  eggs  in  a  given  sample 5 

APPEARANCE (10) 

Clean,  all  eggs  should  be  free  from  dirt  or  blood  stains;  cut  one-half  point 

for  each  egg  so  stained 5 

Not  cracked  or  broken,  cut  one  point  for  each  cracked  egg  in  sample.  More 
than  five  cracked  eggs  or  any  egg  broken  so  that  the  contents  leak  dis- 
qualifies the  sample 5 

CONDITION  OF  SHELL (5) 

Smoothness  of  shell,  cut  one-half  point  for  each  rough-shelled  egg 3 

Hardness  of  shell,  thin-shelled  eggs  which  break  easily  and  do  not  offer  de- 
sirable shipping  possibilities  are  defective 2 

PACKAGE (5) 

Neat  and  attractive  package 3         

Lightness  of  package 1 

Durability  of  package 1 

Total 100 

Final  score Judge 

Score  Cards  for  Poultry  Plants. — This  score  card  indicates  some 
points  to  be  considered  in  poultry-plant  location,  construction, 
and  management.  The  poultryman  who  is  designing  or  building 
a  plant  will  find  in  it  valuable  suggestions  for  grouping  his  build- 
ings and  for  equipment  that  will  produce  the  best  results. 

Score  Card  for  Educational  Inspection  of  Poultry  Plant. 

Owner  of  farm P.O.  Address 

County    State 

Breed     Average  production  per  bird  per  year    

Total  number  of  chicks  hatched 

Total  number  of  adult  females  wintered     

Products  sold,  wholesale  or  retail     

Other  products  produced  besides  eggs     

Remarks   '. 


Date     Inspector     

EQUIPMENT.  Counts.  Cuts. 

General  appearance,  as  to  efficiency 

Health  of  birds 8         

Fowls  showing  lack  of  vigor  cut  4;  fowls  showing  signs  of  disease  cut  4. 


494  EXHIBITING  AND  JUDGING 

Counts.  Cuts. 

Comfort  of  birds 4 

Temperature  of  house  ..counts  2;  moisture  conditions  count  2 

Location  of  houses 4         

Well  drained,  count  2;  facing  south,  count  2 

Construction  of  houses 10 

Shed  roof;  perfect,  count  2;  smooth  tight  walls,  1;  tight  sound  floor:  con- 
crete 3,  dirt  2,  wood  1;  proper  type  and  arrangement  of  fixtures,  4. 

Light  (glass) 4 

1  sq.  ft.  to  each  16  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  or  to  each  4  birds,  counts  perfect;  1 
sq.  ft.  to  8  birds,  count  3;  to  12  birds,  count  2;  to  16  birds,  count  1. 

Ventilation 5 

Muslin  perfect.  1  sq.  ft.  to  2  birds,  count  5;  1  sq.  ft.  to  4  birds,  count  4; 
1  sq.  ft.  to  6  birds,  allow  3;  no  muslin,  counts  2  or  less. 

Utensils 2 

Facilities  for  doing  work  properly,  1;  durability,  1. 

Incubation  equipment 5 

Location  of  incubator  house,  1 ;  ventilation,  1 ;  means  of  supplying  moisture, 
1;  arrangement  of  cellar,  1;  efficiency  and  sufficiency,  1. 

Brooding  equipment 5 

Light,  1;  ventilation,  1;  sanitary  conditions,  1;  labor-saving  devices,  1;  effi- 
ciency and  sufficiency,  1. 

Total  for  equipment 50 

METHODS. 

Floor  space  per  bird 4 

4  sq.  ft.  count  4;  3  count  3;  2  count  2. 

Cleanliness  of  birds 5 

Cleanliness  of  houses 8 

Perches  2;  nests  2;  walls  1;  curtains  2;  glass  1. 
Feeding  practices. 

Dry  mash 8          

Wet  mash,  count  4. 

Scratch  grains 6 

Hopper  grains,  count  2.    Consider  4  as  the  value  of  manner  and  time  of 
feeding;  and  count  2  on  condition  of  litter. 

Water 2 

Clean  and  fresh,  1;  convenient  and  abundant,  1. 

Succulence,  method  and  efficiency 4         

Count  perfect  for  double  yarding,  or  range,  in  summer  and  sprouted 
oats,  vegetables,  or  root  crops  in  winter. 

General  methods  of  entire  feeding  practice 2 

Range  conditions 6         

Abundance  of  range,  1;  shade,  2;  green  feed,  2;  dry  mash,  hopper  fed,  1. 

Method  of  handling  and  marketing  the  eggs 5         

Regularity  of  collection,  1;  care  used  in  grading,  1;  method  of  packing  for 
shipment,  1;  regularity  and  frequency  of  shipping,  1;  sterility  in  market 
eggs,  1. 

Total  for  method 50 

Cuts  equipment Cuts  methods Total  cuts 

Final  score    

REVIEW. 

1.  Name  five  advantages  of  exhibiting. 

2.  Discuss  the  development  of  poultry  exhibits. 

3.  Name  four  types  of  poultry  exhibits. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  possibilities  in  educational  exhibits? 

5.  What  would  be  your  procedure  in  training  a  bird  for  exhibition? 

6.  What  would  you  consider  legitimate  conditioning? 

7.  What  do  you  consider  illegitimate  conditioning? 

8.  Give  the  points  you  would  look  for  in  selecting  birds  for  exhibition. 

9.  Describe  how  to  wash  a  bird. 

10.  Give  points  of  caution  in  shipping  birds  to  the  show. 


REVIEW  495 

11.  What  attention  do  they  require  at  the  show? 

12.  Outline  the  organization  and  preliminary  work  necessary  to  run  a  poultry 

show. 

13.  How  are  judges  selected? 

14.  Give  best  conditions  necessary  for  their  doing  good  work. 

15.  Give  three  objects  of  judging. 

16.  Name  and  define  two  judging  methods. 

17.  Give  the  advantages  of  each  method. 

18.  Enumerate  five  principles  underlying  successful  judging. 

19.  Give  the  main  points  of  the  official  score  card  for  standard  poultry. 

20.  Give  the  uses  of  a  score  card  for  live  poultry  of  the  egg  type. 

21.  What  are  the  uses  of  a  score  card  for  dressed  poultry? 

22.  Outline  the  main  points  of  a  score  card  for  market  eggs. 

Reference. — The  Value  of  the  Poultry  Show,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  Report,  1908. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES. 

IN  every  flock  of  poultry,  regardless  of  size,  an  outbreak  of 
disease  is  always  possible.  In  some  cases  this  is  due  to  environ- 
ment or  management  for  which  the  poultry  man  is  directly  respon- 
sible; in  others,  disease  may  break  out  in  a  flock  well  cared  for. 
Every  poultryman,  therefore,  should  familiarize  himself  with  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  bird's  body,  so  that  the  first 
symptoms  of  disease  will  be  perceived,  and  proper  steps  taken 
to  check  its  spread.  Perfect  health  depends  upon  a  full  under- 
standing of  environment  and  feeding,  which  have  been  elsewhere 
outlined,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  sanitation  and  preven- 
tion of  disease. 

Treating  Diseased  Poultry. — With  the  average  fowl  or  average 
flock  it  is  a  well-established  principle  that  it  does  not  pay  to  treat 
diseased  birds  unless  they  are  of  exceptionally  high  value  and  the 
disease  is  not  infectious.  The  reasons  are  as  follows : 

Birds  which  have  ever  been  affected  with  the  common  diseases 
and  are  supposedly  cured  are  a  constant  menace  to  the  flock.  If 
allowed  to  mingle  with  the  others,  their  identity  may  be  mistaken, 
and  they  may  be  put  in  the  breeding  pen,  to  perpetuate  through 
their  offspring  a  weakened  constitution  and  tendency  to  similar 
diseases  in  succeeding  generations. 

The  value  of  the  individual  bird  and  its  production  are  so 
small,  in  comparison  with  the  time  which  must  be  devoted  to 
treatment  and  the  cost  of  medicine,  that  it  is  rarely  a  profitable 
expenditure  of  time  unless  a  bird  be  very  valuable. 

Diseases  that  are  infectious  or  highly  contagious  should  never 
be  treated  with  the  idea  of  subsequently  using  or  selling  the  affected 
birds.  The  custom  should  be  to  kill  all  that  are  diseased,  and  at 
once  to  begin  thorough  disinfection  and  keep  it  up  for  an  indefinite 
period. 

When  to  Treat  Poultry.— It  is  both  practicable  and  profitable 
to  treat  sick  poultry  under  any  of  the  following  circumstances: 

1 .  When  only  one  or  a  few  fowls  need  treatment  which  is  simple, 
easy  of  administration,  and  absolutely  certain  in  its  effects. 

2.  When,  as  in  the  case  of  certain  common  and  simple  infec- 
496 


POULTRY  HYGIENE  AND  SANITATION  497 

tions,  it  is  possible  to  treat  the  whole  flock  collectively,  with 
reasonable  certainty  of  benefit. 

3.  In  the  case  of  individual  birds  of  high  intrinsic  value,  the 
extent  and  the  nature  of  the  treatment  must  be  decided  by  the 
poultryman  himself.  Here,  however,  there  will  be  a  much  greater 
number  of  diseases  that  can  be  profitably  treated. 

Prevention  Rather  than  Cure. — The  aim  of  all  poultrymen, 
whether  engaged  in  a  large  commercial  business,  a  small  backyard 
poultry  plant,  or  the  production  of  fancy  specimens,  should  be  so 
to  care  for  the  birds,  and  to  institute  such  sanitary  measures,  that 
disease  will  be  prevented,  rather  than  to  try  to  cure  disease  after 
it  is  firmly  established.  This  accords  with  the  present  attitude  of 
the  medical  profession,  and  bears  out  the  old  adage,  "An  ounce  of 
prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure."  Vigorous  health  is  the 
first  requisite  in  preventing  and  combating  disease.  The  elemen- 
tary principles  involved  in  maintaining  a  flock  in  healthy  condition 
and  free  from  disease  will  now  be  considered. 

Hereditary  vigor  of  constitution  helps  to  throw  off  disease, 
and  must  be  bred  into  flocks  in  which  it  is  lacking.  Selection  must 
go  on  continuously  from  year  to  year  for  this  purpose. 

Practising  sanitary  and  hygienic  care, — that  is,  a  system  of 
management  absolutely  hygienic  and  an  environment  perfectly 
sanitary. 

Maintain  a  careful  oversight,  and  immediately  isolate  or  slaugh- 
ter any  diseased  bird  or  birds,  with  prompt  and  thorough  disinfec- 
tion whenever  any  signs  of  disease  appear. 

Poultry  Hygiene  and  Sanitation. — Given  healthy  birds  of  vigorous 
constitution,  an  important  necessity  is  to  have  absolute  cleanliness. 
While  some  poultrymen  may  succeed  for  a  time  in  defiance  of  this, 
yet  the  time  is  sure  to  come  when  neglect  of  cleanliness  will  make 
itself  felt.  Of  course,  disease  may  come  in  spite  of  all  precautions, 
yet  the  possibility  of  its  doing  so  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  word  "  hygiene  "  is  practically  synonymous  with  cleanli- 
ness, hence  its  use  in  the  following  discussion.  The  essentials  of 
hygienic  care  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  groups:  Clean 
housing;  clean  feeding;  clean  yards  and  runs;  and  clean  birds. 

Clean  Housing.— The  first  step  toward  securing  a  clean  house, 
if  a  dropping  board  be  used,  is  to  remove  the  droppings  at  least 
once  a  week,  and  sometimes  oftener.  If  an  absorbent  is  used,  a 
good  plan  is  to  clean  the  dropping  boards  whenever  the  droppings 
become  wet  or  if  they  do  not  dry  quickly.  In  a  moist  state  they 

.   32 


498  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

emit  an  objectionable  odor,  which  is  not  the  case  if  they  dry  and 
harden  immediately. 

The  floor  should  be  covered  with  a  good  scratching  material 
which  should  be  kept  fairly  fresh  and  clean,  free  from  excess  mois- 
ture, and  fairly  coarse.  It  should  be  removed  and  replaced  with 
fresh  material  whenever  it  becomes  damp  or  is  filled  with  droppings 
which  do  not  dry. 

The  house  should  be  given  a  thorough  cleansing  at  least  twice 
a  year,  and  if  necessary  oftener.  All  portable  fixtures  should  be 
removed,  washed,  and  placed  in  the  sunshine  to  dry,  and  all 
window-panes  cleaned.  All  muslin  curtains  must  be  beaten,  to  rid 
them  of  dust  and  make  them  more  pervious  to  ventilation.  The 
litter  and  nesting  material  must  be  removed,  after  which  the 
interior  of  the  house  and  all  fixtures  should  be  thoroughly  sprayed 
with  the  following  disinfecting  solution:  5  quarts  cream  of  lime; 
1  pint  of  zenoleum;  1  quart  of  kerosene. 

This  mixture  should  be  well  shaken  and  diluted  with  an  equal 
amount  of  water,  then  applied  with  a  force-pump  through  a  fine 
nozzle.  Used  thoroughly  in  this  way,  the  solution  will  accomplish 
three  things  more  rapidly  and  easily  than  if  applied  with  a  brush : 

1.  A  thin  coat  of  whitewash  will  be  evenly  applied  and  spread 
with  force  enough  to  put  it  into  all  the  cracks  and  crevices. 

2.  The  zenoleum  will  kill  any  disease  germs  which  may  be 
lurking  in  the  house. 

3.  The  kerosene  will  destroy  or  drive  out  all  red  mites,  and  to 
some  extent  body  lice.    The  former  are  easily  exterminated  by  this 
spray,  and  the  latter  by  means  of  a  good  lice  powder  in  connec- 
tion with  the  spray. 

The  above  solution,  for  common  use,  is  cheap,  easily  applied 
and  a  perfect  disinfectant,  making  the  house  clean,  which  means 
more  attractive  surroundings  and  healthier  birds. 

The  fixtures  should  next  be  replaced,  the  floor  covered  with 
fresh,  clean  litter,  and  new  nesting  material  put  in  the  nests. 

Besides  frequent  cleansing,  to  keep  the  house  sanitary  there 
must  be  an  abundance  of  sunlight,  which  in  itself  is  a  powerful 
germ  destroyer,  and  proved  to  be  very  beneficial  to  the  health  of  the 
birds.  The  prevention  of  dampness,  too,  is  a  vital  consideration, 
since  damp,  dark  quarters  furnish  a  natural  breeding-ground  for 
all  types  of  bacteria, — places  where  filth  cannot  be  readily  detected, 
and  where  disease  germs  may  multiply  undisturbed. 

Clean  Feeding. — To  sum  up  in  few  words,  clean  feeding  neces- 


POULTRY  HYGIENE  AND  SANITATION  499 

sitates  the  use  only  of  fresh,  pure  feed  stuffs,  and  the  avoidance 
of  all  moldy  or  musty  grains  and  mashes;  the  supplying  of  abun- 
dance of  succulent  feed  at  frequent  intervals  and  in  small  amounts, 
so  that  none  will  remain  from  one  feeding  time  to  another  and 
become  sour.  All  drinking  vessels  must  be  kept  sweet  and  clean, 
and  be  filled  with  clean,  fresh  water.  Drinking  vessels  should  be 
washed  thoroughly  every  month  with  a  five  per  cent  zenoleum 
solution.  The  feeding  floor  and  vessels  must  be  kept  clean,  espe- 
cially if  wet  mashes  are  given.  The  birds  should  not  be  unduly 
forced,  as  this  causes  loss  of  vitality  and  stamina  and  makes  them 
more  likely  to  contract  diseases  which  the  vigorous  fowl  would 
resist.  Health  is  also  promoted  by  considerable  exercise  induced 
by  the  feeding  of  grain  in  litter  and  by  having  plenty  of  yard  room. 

One  of  the  most  common  modes  by  which  infectious  diseases 
are  transmitted  to  a  flock  is  by  means  of  drinking  water  from  the 
vessels  which  all  use  in  common.  Owing  to  this  fact,  it  is  customary 
to  give  to  flocks,  especially  if  they  show  any  signs  of  roup  or  other 
infection,  a  drinking  water  containing  some  harmless  antiseptic. 
The  best  and  most  common  one  is  potassium  permanganate,  which 
can  be  purchased  at  any  drug  store  for  about  twenty-five  cents 
per  pound,  and  from  which  a  stock  solution  to  full  saturation 
should  be  made,  or  a  solution  in  which  is  dissolved  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  crystal,  some  being  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  jar  or 
pail.  This  solution  should  be  tightly  stoppered,  and  a  little  of  it 
can  be  placed  in  the  fountain  each  time  water  is  drawn,  the  pro- 
portion being  two  teaspoonfuls  to  ten  quarts  of  water,  which  will 
give  the  water  a  purple  color.  This  is  recommended  only  when  the 
birds  show  signs  of  colds. 

Clean  Yards. — Tainted  and  filthy  yards  breed  infection  which 
transmits  disease  from  one  flock  to  another  or  from  one  fowl  to 
another  in  the  same  flock.  The  best  and  safest  rule  is  to  have  the 
yards  as  large  as  possible,  for  the  larger  the  yard  the  less  the  danger 
of  excessive  filth  accumulation.  Where  there  are  only  small  runs, 
the  frequent  cultivation  of  these  will  greatly  reduce  the  possibility 
of  spread  of  infection.  The  raising  of  succulent  green  crops  for 
forage  will  not  only  dispose  of  the  surface  droppings,  but  will  con- 
vert them  into  crops  which  the  birds  can  later  use  for  feed. 

Clean  Birds. — If  poultry  are  to  be  healthy  and  develop  their 
productive  powers  to  the  fullest  extent,  they  must  be  free  from 
parasites,  both  internal  and  external.  The  destruction  of  parasites 
will  be  considered  later.  They  are  merely  mentioned  here  as  one 


500  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

of  the  factors  in  poultry  hygiene.  The  term  "  clean  birds  "  means 
the  immediate  checking  of  any  symptoms  of  disease.  This  neces- 
sitates not  only  the  treatment  of  sick  birds,  but  their  immediate 
isolation,  and  the  proper  disposal  of  dead  ones. 

The  only  safe  way  to  dispose  of  dead  birds  is  to  burn  them, 
which  is  especially  necessary  if  the  diseases  are  highly  infectious. 
If  buried,  it  should  be  at  least  three  feet  deep,  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  dogs  or  wild  animals  digging  them  up.  The  danger  of 
infection,  however,  is  never  entirely  averted  except  by  burning. 
A  most  unwise  practice  is  to  throw  the  bodies  into  the  bushes,  or 
other  out-of-the-way  spot,  whence  the  infection,  if  present,  may 
be  carried  broadcast. 

The  Diagnosis  of  Disease. — The  first  question  which  confronts 
a  poultry  man  with  sick  birds  is,  "  What  ails  my  birds?  "  It  is 
obviously  necessary  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  trouble  before 
instituting  preventive  or  curative  treatment.  But  it  must  be 
understood  that  the  average  poultryman  or  farmer  cannot  diagnose 
poultry  diseases,  either  by  external  or  internal  examination,  with 
any  degree  of  certainty.  In  most  cases  it  is  possible  by  a  careful  ex- 
amination to  locate  the  trouble,  and  thereby  to  place  it  in  a  general 
group  of  disorders  which  affect  this  or  that  particular  organ  in  a 
given  way.  There  are  two  general  methods  of  making  a  diagnosis, 
— external  examination  and  post-mortem  examination  internally. 

An  external  examination  may  show  certain  well-defined  symp- 
toms which  are  almost  always  associated  with  illness  of  any  nature, 
and  which  must  be  understood  before  attempting  to  make  an 
exact  diagnosis. 

Symptoms  to  look  for  are:  A  lack  of  interest  in  what  is  going 
on  about  it;  a  dumpy  appearance,  caused  by  contraction  of  the 
neck,  ruffled  feathers,  sitting  in  one  place,  usually  in  a  dark  corner 
out  of  the  way  of  other  birds;  the  eyes  closed  most  of  the  time, 
giving  the  bird  a  sleepy  appearance;  the  wattles  and  the  comb 
shrivelled  up  and  dark  or  purple  in  color,  or  very  pale;  decided  loss 
of  appetite.  When  these  symptom?  are  noted,  the  bird  should  be 
isolated,  and  an  attempt  made  more  accurately  to  define  the  trouble 
by  a  detailed  examination. 

The  following  classification  of  external  symptoms  may  assist 
the  one  making  the  diagnosis  in  determining  which  of  a  number 
of  specific  diseases  is  really  present  in  the  specimen.  Before 
accepting  this  as  the  direct  cause,  he  should  compare  the  symptoms 
with  an  accurate  pathological  description. 


THE  DIAGNOSIS  OF  DISEASE  501 

External  Symptoms  and  the  Diseases  which  they  Indicate. 

(From  Bulletin  published  by  Maine  Experiment  Station.) 
Symptoms.  Diseases  Indicated. 

Abdomen  swollen Peritonitis;  dropsy;  white  diarrhoea. 

Belching  of  gas Inflammation  of  the  crop. 

Breathing  abnormal, — i.e.,  too  All  diseases  of  the  respiratory  system;  arsenic 
slow,  too  rapid,  wheezing,  poisoning;  pericarditis;  gapes;  air-sac  mite, 
whistling,  or  snoring. 

Choking Arsenic  poisoning. 

Comb  pale Tuberculosis;  dropsy;  air-sac  mite;  infectious 

leukaemia;  white  diarrhoea. 

Comb  first  pale  but  later  dark.. Enteritis. 

Comb  very  dark Liver  disease;  blackhead;  congestion  of  lungs; 

pneumonia. 

Comb  yellow Liver  disease;  visceral  gout. 

Comb  with  white  powdery  scurf  .White  comb. 

Constipation Simple  constipation;  indigestion;  inflamma- 
tion of  the  oviduct. 

Convulsions Arsenic    poisoning;    copper,    lead,    or    zinc 

poisoning;  epilepsy;  harvest  bug. 

Cough Diseases  of  the  respiratory  system. 

Crop  enlarged  and  hard Crop-bound. 

Crop  enlarged  and  soft Inflammation   of   the   crop;    enlarged   crop; 

gastritis. 

Diarrhoea Diseases  of  the  alimentary  tract;  poisonings 

of     all    kinds;     blackhead;     tuberculosis; 
cholera;  roup;  white  diarrhoea. 

Emaciation Tuberculosis;     aspergillosis;     visceral     gout; 

mites;  white  diarrhoea. 

Eye,  expansion  of  pupil Arsenic  poisoning. 

Eye,  sticky  discharge  from Catarrh;  roup. 

Face  swollen Roup. 

Droppings  bright  emerald-green. Cholera. 

Fever,  very  pronounced Peritonitis;  aspergillosis;  infectious  leukaemia; 

inflammation  of  the  oviduct. 

Lameness Tuberculosis;  aspergillosis;  rheumatism;  scaly 

legs;  bumble  foot. 

Legs,    roughened    with    scales 

raised.  Scaly  legs. 

Mouth,  mucous  discharge Congestion  of  the  lungs;  pneumonia;  gapes. 

Mouth,  white,  cheesy  patches.  .Roup;  canker. 

Neck  bent  back Poisoning;  congestion  of  the  brain;  wry-neck. 

Neck  limp Limber  neck. 

Paralysis Poisoning;  apoplexy;  heat  prostration. 

Saliva,  abundant  secretion Arsenic  poisoning. 

Skin,  scaly  and  incrusted Body  mange;  favus. 

Staggering Congestion  of  the  brain;  leg  weakness. 

Thirst,  excessive Hypertrophy  of  the  liver;  peritonitis;  asper- 
gillosis, tapeworms. 

Tongue,  hard  and  dry Pip;  diseases  of  the  respiratory  system. 

Tumors  on  head '. Roup;  chicken  pox. 

Urates  yellow  . . .Cholera. 

Vent,  mass  of  inflamed  tissue 

projecting  from.  Prolapsus  of  the  oviduct. 

Vent,  skin  inflamed  with  yellow 

discharge  and  offensive  odor.  Vent  gleet. 


502  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

Post-mortem  Examination. — Whenever  birds  die  from  un- 
known causes,  the  poultryman  should  make  a  post-mortem  exami- 
nation, and  try  to  determine  from  the  general  condition  of  the 
internal  organs  the  exact  nature  of  the  disease.  This  may  prevent 
any  further  outbreak,  and  the  experience  acquired  by  dissecting 
and  studying  the  birds  will  enable  the  poultryman  to  do  it  each 
time  more  accurately.  He  should  be  so  familiar  with  the  normal 
appearance  of  the  organs  as  to  detect  at  once  any  unnatural  con- 
dition. The  majority  of  birds  which  die  are  victims  either  of 
simple  diseases  or  of  complications  which  have  decided  internal 
and  visible  characteristics,  and  with  a  little  study  such  post- 
mortem examinations  will  prove  both  interesting  and  instructive. 

The  following  procedure  is  recommended  in  making  such  an 
examination:  Lay  the  dead  bird  on  her  back,  braced  up  on  a  piece 
of  inch  board;  extend  the  wings  and  legs,  and  fasten  with  sharp 
nails  to  the  board.  Pluck  the  feathers  from  the  breast  and  abdo- 
men; then  take  a  sharp  knife,  and  cut  the  skin  on  the  median  line 
from  the  crop  to  the  vent,  taking  care  not  to  cut  through  the  flesh 
and  rupture  any  of  the  organs. 

Next  take  a  pair  of  blunt-pointed,  sharp  scissors  and  cut  the 
flesh  away  from  the  abdomen,  cutting  the  ribs  on  either  side  of 
the  breastbone,  so  that  it  may  be  taken  out  entire.  In  doing 
this  be  careful  not  to  injure  the  organs  or  to  make  them  bleed. 
After  the  sternum  (breastbone)  is  removed,  the  entire  cavity  of 
the  body  is  exposed,  and  the  organs  will  be  seen  lying  in  their 
natural  position.  Now  study  each  organ,  taking  the  uppermost 
first,  and  ascertain  if  it  is  normal,  or,  if  not,  what  is  the  cause  of 
the  abnormal  condition. 

The  liver  is  the  most  prominent  organ,  and  in  the  healthy  bird 
should  be  rich  reddish  brown  in  color  and  free  from  any  specks  or 
blotches.  It  should  be  firm  in  texture,  neither  excessively  large 
nor  shrivelled  up.  Both  lobes  should  be  approximately  of  the 
same  size,  and  the  gall-bladder  normal  in  size,  bright  green  in 
color,  and  not  ruptured. 

The  heart  should  next  be  studied.  It  should  be  firm  in  texture, 
free  from  an  excessive  accumulation  of  fat,  and  not  excessive  in 
size.  Both  lobes  should  be  of  the  same  size;  if  not,  it  may  indicate 
heart  failure.  There  should  be  no  tubercles  or  nodules  on  the 
heart  nor  in  its  sac;  either  presence  may  denote  tuberculosis. 

The  lungs  are  next  studied,  and  will  be  found  on  either  side 
of  the  heart  at  the  back.  They  are  pink  in  color,  and  composed 
of  spongy  tissue.  The  lungs  should  always  be  examined  for  nodules 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY  503 

of  tuberculosis  and  for  lesions  of  aspergillosis,  the  latter  being 
much  more  common  in  the  fowl  than  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs. 
A  small  piece  of  the  lungs  should  be  placed  in  a  tray  of  water.  It 
will  float  if  healthy,  and  sink  if  unhealthy. 

The  crop,  gullet,  and  windpipe  should  next  be  studied, — espe- 
cially the  crop, — to  see  that  there  is  no  obstruction  which  would  stop 
1  he  feed  from  entering  the  stomach  and  gizzard.  The  organs  pre- 
viously examined  can  now  be  removed,  and  careful  examination 
be  made  of  the  gizzard  and  intestines  to  see  that  the  walls  as  well 
as  the  undigested  material  within  them  are  normal  in  appearance. 
The  cfficum  should  be  studied,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of 
tubercles  on  the  intestinal  membranes  noted.  Next  the  repro- 
ductive organs  of  the  female  can  be  studied,  to  determine  the 
possible  rupture  of  the  oviduct  or  the  breaking  of  an  egg  in  it. 

In  making  a  post-mortem  examination,  if  the  disease  seems  to 
have  been  located,  a  description  of  the  disease  should  be  gone  over 
carefully  and  compared  with  the  conditions  found,  to  verify  or 
disprove  the  supposition. 

Diseases  of  Poultry. — In  studying  the  diseases  of  the  domestic 
fowl,  the  most  systematic  procedure  is  to  group  them,  according 
to  their  location  or  the  group  of  organs  which  they  directly  affect, 
as  diseases  of  the  digestive  system,  nervous  system,  respiratory 
system,  and  reproductive  system. 

Furthermore,  there  are  diseases  not  associated  with  any  par- 
ticular group  of  organs  or  any  one  system,  which,  nevertheless, 
should  be  considered.  These  may  be  termed  miscellaneous  diseases. 

There  is  still  another  group,  representing  a  few  diseases  of 
highly  infectious  nature  which  may  affect  one  or  more  parts  of 
the  body.  These  are  termed  infectious  diseases. 

The  following  list  gives  the  common  diseases  which  the  average 
poultryman  is  apt  to  meet  in  every-day  work.  They  are  grouped 
according  to  the  system  with  which  they  are  associated.  Owing 
to  limited  space,  detailed  discussion  of  these  is  impossible.  At  the 
end  of  this  chapter  will  be  found  references  to  standard  authorities 
on  poultry  diseases,  where  detailed  information  concerning  each 
specific  disease  may  be  found. 

Diseases  of  the  digestive  system:  Impacted,  inflamed,  or 
enlarged  crop;  inflammation  of  the  stomach,  gastritis;  simple 
diarrhoea;  enteritis;  indigestion;  constipation. 

Diseases  of  the  nervous  system:  Apoplexy;  heat  prostration; 
congestion  of  the  brain;  epilepsy. 


504  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  system:  Catarrh;  bronchitis; 
influenza;  roup;  pip;  canker;  thrush;  aspergillosis ;  congestion  of 
the  lungs;  pneumonia. 

Diseases  of  the  reproductive  system  of  females:  Ovarian 
tumors;  absorption  of  eggs;  enlargement  of  the  yolks;  inflammation 
of  the  oviduct;  prolapse  of  the  oviduct;  obstruction  of  the  oviduct; 
rupture  of  the  oviduct;  vent  gleet;  breaking  down  behind. 

Diseases  of  the  male  reproductive  organs  are  of  no  economic 
importance. 

Miscellaneous  diseases:  Diseases  of  the  liver;  diseases  of  the 
skin ;  chicken  pox. 

Special  diseases  of  chickens:    White  diarrhoea;  leg  weakness. 

Infectious  diseases :    Tuberculosis ;  diphtheria ;  cholera. 

By  the  study  of  one  or  more  of  the  recommended  text-books 
on  diseases,  every  poultryman  and  student  may  become  familiar 
with  the  symptoms,  causes,  and  common  methods  of  treatment 
of  the  diseases  outlined.  These  are  by  no  means  all  of  the  diseases 
of  poultry,  but  they  cover  the  more  common  affections. 

Poultry  Surgery. — In  the  case  of  lacerations,  cuts,  or  other 
wounds,  a  little  knowledge  of  surgical  methods  may  enable  one 
successfully  to  cleanse  and  sew  them  up,  thus  in  many  cases  saving 
a  valuable  bird.  From  a  surgical  standpoint,  there  is  more  lati- 
tude with  poultry  than  with  almost  any  other  animals,  as  -illus- 
trated in  the  operation  of  caponizing.  This  is  usually  performed 
with  but  little,  if  any,  attention  to  aseptic  precautions. 

Cuts  or  wounds  of  any  degree  of  severity  may  be  successfully 
treated  by  the  following  method  if  the  value  of  the  bird  warrants 
the  time  and  trouble : 

Wash  the  hands  and  instruments  thoroughly  with  soap,  then 
rinse  the  hands  in  a  1  to  1,000  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury. 

Pluck  all  feathers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  wound  and  wash  the 
adjoining  parts  with  warm  water,  using  a  piece  of  cotton  or  soft 
cloth,  then  wash  with  the  mercury  solution. 

If  the  wound  is  small,  it  need  not  be  sewed  up;  if  large,  it 
should  be  sewed  with  white  silk  thread  previously  soaked  in  alcohol. 
If  the  wound  penetrates  the  muscles  or  other  organs  besides  the 
skin,  sew  each  up  separately. 

When  completed,  powder  the  wound  with  iodoform,  put  the 
bird  in  a  small,  clean  coop,  and  watch  the  wound  for  a  few  days 
and  keep  it  clean. 

Bumble  Foot. — This  means  corns  or  abscesses  on  the  sole  of 


SOME  COMMON  POULTRY  MEDICINES  505 

the  foot  caused  by  injury,  usually  by  jumping  or  flying  from  a 
great  height.  The  treatment  is  to  open  the  sore  spot  with  a  sharp 
knife,  going  to  the  bottom;  extract  the  entire  core.  Then  proceed 
as  when  treating  wounds,  except  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  sew  up 
so  small  a  cut. 

Frozen  Combs. — In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  especially  during  exceptionally  cold  weather,  and  if  not 
properly  housed  or  protected,  it  is  a  common  occurrence  for  indi- 
vidual fowls,  and  sometimes  whole  flocks,  to  have  their  combs 
and  wattles  frozen.  When  this  misfortune  happens,  there  is  an 
immediate  falling  off  in  egg  production.  If  the  affected  birds  are 
not  treated  at  once,  this  falling  off  will  be  very  marked  and  pro- 
longed, and,  if  badly  frosted,  the  frozen  parts  will  be  lost. 

Treatment  consists  in  immersing  the  frozen  parts  in  cold  water 
for  ten  minutes,  after  which  they  should  be  manipulated  with 
vaseline  once  a  day,  until  the  comb  assumes  its  normal  color  and 
texture.  Severe  freezing  spoils  a  bird  for  breeding  purposes,  there- 
fore it  must  be  guarded  against. 

Some  Common  Poultry  Medicines. — The  following  kinds  of 
drugs  and  remedies  will  often  be  found  useful  on  poultry  plants 
where  sick  birds  of  considerable  value  are  treated,  or  on  any  plant 
for  the  treatment  of  a  flock.  They  should  be  kept  in  a  small 
cupboard  where  they  are  available  at  all  times.  The  list  is  recom- 
mended by  the  Maine  Station. 

Calomel  (Subchloride  of  Mercury). — A  very  useful  alterative 
medicine  for  fowls  of  all  ages.  One-grain  pills  are  usually  used. 
One-fourth  grain  is  a  good  laxative.  It  has  a  very  good  effect  on 
the  liver.  When  given  it  should  be  followed  in  two  hours  by  a  dose 
of  castor  oil. 

Cayenne  is  an  excellent  liver  stimulant  when  given  in  not 
too  large  quantities.  In  case  of  colds  it  is  very  useful,  and  is  often 
used  as  one  of  the  ingredients  in  stimulants  so  often  fed  to  increase 
or  stimulate  winter  egg  production. 

Catechu  is  often  used  to  treat  severe  cases  of  diarrhoea.  The 
average  dose  of  powdered  catechu  is  from  2  to  5  grains  and  of  the 
tincture  from  2  to  5  drops. 

Castor  Oil. — One  of  the  best  and  most  common  remedies  for 
diarrhoea.  This  affliction  is  often  caused  by  some  sour  or  fetid 
mass  in  the  intestine;  a  dose  of  castor  oil  will  often  remove  this 
and  thus  allay  the  diarrhoea.  It  is  also  a  valuable  factor  to  aid 
in  reducing  an  impacted  crop.  A  teaspoonf  ul  of  castor  oil  is  poured 


506  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

down  the  throat  and  then  the  crop  is  manipulated  until  the  soft- 
ened mass  is  caused  to  move  on  properly. 

Epsom  Salts  (Magnesium  Sulfate).  —  It  is  one  of  the  cheapest 
and  most  useful  of  all  drugs.  It  is  especially  useful  in  liver  trouble 
and  diarrhoea.  Half  a  teaspoonful  for  a  full-grown  fowl  is  a  stand- 
ard dose.  It  can  be  fed  by  mixing  in  soft  feed;  but  a  much  more 
effective  plan  is  to  allow  the  bird  to  go  without  feed  for  a  few 
hours  and  then  dissolve  the  salts  in  warm  water  and  pour  down 
the  bird's  throat. 

Cottonseed  oil  and  olive  oil  are  useful  when  hens  are  egg  bound, 
for  diarrhoea,  and  for  external  and  internal  use  in  dressing  sores, 
torn  flesh,  and  bound  crop. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury.  —  A  1  to  1,000  bichloride  solution  is  a 
germicide  and  disinfectant  for  external  use,  cleansing  wounds  and 
preventing  infection.  It  is  highly  poisonous,  and  to  prevent  it 
being  mistaken  for  water  it  is  well  to  color  it  with  laundry  blue 
for  identification.  One  can  mix  the  solution  by  purchasing  the 
standard  bichloride  of  mercury  tablets,  or,  better  yet,  have  the 
druggist  make  a  standard  solution. 

Medicines  in  Tablet  Form.  —  It  is  often  desirable,  because  much 
more  convenient  and  easily  administered,  to  have  the  medicines 
in  compact  tablet  form.  Wholesale  drug  houses  carry  complete 
lines  of  such  tablets  graded  according  to  dosage.  They  are 
administered  very  easily  by  holding  the  bird's  mouth  open  with 
one  hand  and  with  the  other  thrusting  the  tablet  far  back  into 
the  bird's  mouth  so  that  it  is  swallowed.  The  following  four  drugs 
in  this  form  are  useful  : 

Salicylic  acid,  two  and  one-half  grains,  for  use  in  cases  of  rheu- 
matism. 

Aconite  Root,  one-tenth  grain,  for  use  in  fevers. 

Bismuth  subnitrate,  one  grain,  for  intestinal  irritation. 

Iron,  quinine,  and  strychnine  tablets,  for  use  as  a  tonic.  Dose, 
3  per  day. 

Antiseptic  Ointment.—  The  following  ointment  may  be  made 
by  the  poultryman  and  will  always  be  found  useful  hi  treating 
cuts,  sores,  and  wounds  of  all  kinds: 

Oil  of  origanum  .....................................     1  ounce 

Cresol  ..............................................   ^  ounce 


ounce 

Resm  ..............................................     1  ounce 

Clean  axle  grease  (or  vaseline)  ...............  8  ounces 


POULTRY  PARASITES 


507 


The  axle  grease  and  resin  should  be  melted  and  the  other 
ingredients  mixed  into  the  melted  mass.  Pour  into  a  tin  or  mold 
and  allow  to  cool. 

POULTRY   PARASITES. 

External  Parasites. — The  prevention  or  extermination  of  com- 
mon external  poultry  parasites  is  a  tedious  and  painstaking  process, 
necessitating  constant  watchfulness  and  preventive  measures. 
There  are  some  thirty  known  species  of  insects  and  other  forms  of 
animal  life  which  are  parasitic  upon  poultry,  some  living  on  the 
skin,  some  boring  under  it,  while  others  stay  on  the  bird  only  long 
enough  to  get  their  nourishment.  The 
presence  of  these  insects  forms  an  economic 
factor  in  the  health  of  a  flock  and  the 
profit  from  it.  Birds  infected  with  para- 
sites do  not  grow  as  large,  nor  do  adults 
lay  as  many  or  as  large  eggs,  as  when  not 
infested.  The  parasites  suck  the  blood  of 
the  fowls  and  disturb  their  rest  at  night. 
It  is  unnecessary  for  the  poultryman  to 
know  all  of  these  different  species  in  order 
to  protect  his  birds  from  them,  but  there 
are  four  common  types  which  will  be  here 
discussed,  namely:  Lice  (Fig.  210) ;  mites; 
scaly  legs;  depluming  mites. 

Lice. — These  parasites  are  found  more 
or  less  on  nearly  all  birds.  The  strong, 
healthy  fowl  in  clean  quarters  with  ample 
space  for  dusting  will  probably  not  be 
bothered  much.  But  lice  seem  to  thrive  best  on  weak,  stunted 
birds,  and  intensify  this  weakness.  They  usually  swarm  over 
the  body,  always  producing  a  scurvy-like  roughness  of  the  skin, 
and  sometimes  destroying  it.  They  cause  diarrhoea  and  general 
debility,  manifested  by  a  pale  comb  and  entire  cessation  of  the 
reproductive  function.  Lice  live  on  the  waste  material  thrown 
off  by  the  skin  and  feathers.  They  breathe  through  pores  or 
openings  in  the  sides  of  their  bodies,  and  can  be  killed  by  filling 
these  pores  with  fine  powder,  hence  the  custom  of  dusting  with 
insect  powde~. 

Sometimes  the  fowls  are  dipped  or  the  houses  fumigated,  but 
these  methods  are  not  recommended,  owing  to  the  rumpling  of  the 


Fia.  210. — Body  louse  of 
the  domestic  fowl,  Menopon 
biseriatum.  Such  lice  live  on 
the  fowl's  body  all  the  time. 


508  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

bird's  plumage  after  dipping,  and  to  the  impossibility  of  properly 
fumigating  without  injuring  the  birds. 

A  natural  dust-bin  should  be  provided  for  each  flock  in  some 
dry,  sheltered  place,  and  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  dust  the  birds  at  least 
twice  a  year  with  some  reliable  insect  powder,  repeating  the  process 
twice,  at  intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days,  to  catch  the  young  lice, 
which  are  still  in  the  egg  at  the  time  of  the  first  dusting.  The 
powder  should  be  liberally  sprinkled  from  a  metal  box  with  per- 
forated cover,  the  birds  being  held  by  the  feet,  and  the  powder 


FIG   212.— The  scalv-leg  mite, 
Sarcoptts  mutans.      (Highly  inag- 
FIQ.  211.— The  red  mite  of  do-  nified.) 

mestic  fowls,  Dermanyssus  gallince. 
Such  mites  stay  on  the  fowl's  body 
only  at  night;  at  other  times  they 
hide  in  cracks  and  crevices  about  the 
poultry  house.  (Highly  magnified.) 

worked  into  the  feathers  with  the  fingers.  Most  of  the  lice  will 
be  found  in  the  down  near  the  vent,  and  these  parts  should  be 
well  dusted. 

Few  of  the  commercial  lice  powders  are  reliable,  but  the  fol- 
lowing can  easily  and  quickly  be  made  at  home,  and  is  sure  death 
if  properly  applied. 

Take  3  parts  of  gasoline  and  1  part  of  crude  carbolic  acid, 
90  to  95  per  cent,  strength.  Mix  these  together,  and  stir  in  grad- 
ually enough  plaster  of  Paris  to  absorb  all  the  moisture,  which 
will  usually  be  about  four  quarts  of  plaster  to  one  quart  of  liquid. 
Thorough  mixing  of  the  liquid  and  dry  plaster  will  result  in  a  dry, 
pinkish-brown  powder  with  a  fairly  strong  carbolic  odor. 

A  commercial  apparatus  for  dusting  fowls  consists  of  a  hollow 
cylinder  in  which  the  bird  and  powder  are  placed  and  revolved, 
after  which  the  bird  is  immediately  liberated.  This  is  effective, 


POULTRY   PARASITES  509 

but  uncomfortable  for  the  fowls  from  the  dust  getting  into  their 
eyes  and  mouth. 

Lice  may  be  killed  quickly  and  easily  by  spraying  with  crude 
petroleum.  The  fowl  is  suspended  by  one  foot  in  a  looped  cord, 
and  the  spraying  may  be  done  with  a  simple  air-gun  sprayer.  The 
process  is  rapid  and  very  effective. 

Mites  (Figs.  211  and  212)  differ  from  lice  in  that  they  do  not 
live  on  the  bird's  body  all  the  time,  but  mass  together  in  cracks 
and  crevices  under  perches  and  in  the  walls,  whence  at  night  they 
crawl  to  the  fowl  and  suck  blood,  returning  to  their  hiding  places 


FIG    213. — The  work  of  the  scaly-leg  mite.      Affected  birds  should  be  isolated  and  given 
immediate  treatment  to  prevent  spread  of  the  mites. 

before  the  birds  leave  the  perches.  When  full  of  blood  they  are 
red,  hence  the  name  of  red  mite  or  red  spider.  Spraying  with 
strong  kerosene  emulsion  or  crude  petroleum  will  kill  all  the  mites 
it  touches,  hence  it  is  well  to  have  fixtures  movable  so  one  can 
get  at  all  parts  which  might  harbor  these  insects.  Painting  the 
perches  with  crude  petroleum  every  few  weeks,  in  warm  weather, 
will  keep  mites  in  perfect  control. 

Scaly  Legs. — The  form  of  scabies  which  affects  the  legs  of 
fowls  (Fig.  213)  is  due  to  a  burrowing  insect,  which  buries  itself 
under  the  scales  and  secretes  a  calcareous  material.  This  elevates 
the  scales  and  gives  them  an  uneven  appearance,  and  in  some 


510  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

places  the  leg  enlarges  to  two  or  three  times  its  normal  diameter. 
This  pest  is  readily  communicated  from  fowl  to  fowl,  hence  the 
wisdom  of  destroying  it  wherever  found.  The  treatment  is  to 
stand  the  bird  in  a  pail  of  warm  water,  and  allow  the  scales  to 
soak  up  thoroughly,  then  carefully  scrape  off  the  crusts  without 
making  the  legs  bleed,  after  which  wipe  dry  and  apply  carbolated 
vaseline  once  daily.  Crude  petroleum  is  very  effective  in  mild 
cases.  In  bad  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  treatment, 
but  ordinarily  one  soaking  and  frequent  applications  of  vaseline 
will  soon  effect  a  cure.  The  treatment  should  be  started  on  the 
first  sign  of  trouble. 

Depluming  Mites. — These  are  minute  insects  which  live  on  the 
fowl,  taking  up  their  abode  at  the  base  of  the  quills,  which  they 
consume  or  damage  so  that  the  feathers  subsequently  fall  out. 
If  the  condition  persists,  the  feathers  around  the  neck  and  head 
may  all  drop  out.  Treatment  consists  in  rubbing  crude  petroleum 
or  carbolated  vaseline  frequently  into  the  parts  of  the  skin  infested. 

Other  Pests. — Four  other  common  pests  are  of  less  importance, 
but  should  be  mentioned.  Mosquitoes  often  attack  fowls,  and  bite 
the  face  and  comb  and  wattles,  leaving  a  field  for  the  infection  by 
chicken  pox.  Treatment  is  the  application  of  carbolated  vaseline. 
Screening  the  roosting  quarters  is  sometimes  found  advisable. 

Harvest  mites  abound  along  wet  brushy  places,  and  are  common 
in  the  central  southern  part  of  this  country. 

Bedbugs  are  also  quite  common  in  poultry  houses.  Turpentine 
added  to  the  disinfecting  solution  previously  mentioned  will  be 
found  a  preventive. 

Hen  fleas  will  often  be  found  in  unsanitary  houses;  the  treat- 
ment recommended  for  red  mites  will  eradicate  them. 

Internal  Parasites. — There  are  two  groups  of  internal  parasites 
which  embrace  nearly  all  the  types  of  economic  importance, — 
namely,  (1)  parasites  which  find  their  way  into  the  trachea  of  the 
bird  and  (2)  intestinal  parasites. 

The  first  group  is  represented  by  the  gapeworm  (Fig.  214), 
found  only  in  little  chicks,  which  when  affected  will  stand  around 
with  drooping  wings,  gasping  for  breath.  Gapeworms  are  little, 
reddish  worms  which  fasten  themselves  on  the  wall  of  the  trachea 
and  suck  blood  from  its  mucous  lining,  causing  inflammation. 
They  are  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  may  become  so  numerous 
as  almost  to  stop  the  breathing.  The  disease  is  especially  prevalent 
in  the  spring,  the  infection  being  transmitted  in  the  soil  from  one 


POULTRY  PARASITES 


511 


year  to  another.  If  the  parasites  are  known  to  exist,  the  best 
procedure  is  to  plow  the  ground  and  lime  it  thoroughly.  Do  not 
use  it  for  young  chicks  for  a  year  or  two — not  until  some  crop 
has  been  grown  upon  it,  and  the  ground  worked  over  considerably. 
When  only  a  few  chicks  are  affected,  the  worms  can  be  extracted 
with  a  horsehair  loop  or  commercial  extractor. 


FIG.  214. — The  gapeworm,  Syngamus  trachealis,  of  young  chicks,  attached  to  the  inside  of  the 
trachea.     A  serious  handicap  to  successful  brooding  when  the  soil  becomes  infested. 

Intestinal  Worms. — Internal  parasites  are  represented  by  two 
distinct  kinds  of  intestinal  worms,  known  as  roundworm  and  tape- 
worm. The  former  are  round,  smooth  worms  (Fig.  215),  tapering 
at  each  end,  pointed  in  front  and  blunt  in  the  rear.  They  derive 
their  nourishment  from  the  feed,  and,  if  present  in  large  numbers, 


FIG.    215. — The    common    roundworm,    Heterakis    perspicillum.      When  present    in   large 
numbers  they  are  a  serious  hindrance  to  production. 

greatly  impair  the  nutrition  of  the  bird,  perhaps  interfering  with 
digestion  and  causing  obstruction. 

The  best  treatment  is  to  give  some  drug  which  will  cause  them 
to  loosen  their  hold  on  the  lining  of  the  intestine,  and  to  follow 
this  up  with  a  laxative  to  expel  them.  For  individual  fowls  one 
teaspoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine  may  be  given  one  hour  before 
feeding  in  the  morning,  and  three  hours  later  one  teaspoonful  of 
castor  oil. 


512  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

The  tapeworm  (Fig.  216)  represents  the  second  type  of  intestinal 
parasites.  If  present  in  any  number,  they  will  be  very  detrimental 
to  the  flock,  making  the  birds  emaciated  and  weak  and  causing 
the  feathers  to  lose  their  lustre.  The  treatment  outlined  for  round- 
worms  will  also  be  beneficial  with  tapeworms.  Frequent  feeding 


FIG.  216. — The  tapeworm.      When  tapeworms  are  present  in   any  numbers  they  greatly 
impair  the  efficiency  of  the  birds. 

of  onions  or  garlic  is  said  to  be  a  preventive,  and  powdered  pome- 
granate-root bark,  at  the  rate  of  one  teaspoonful  to  fifty  birds, 
will  help  to  expel  them. 


ENEMIES    OF   POULTRY. 


There  are  predatory  animals  which,  if  given  a  chance  Or  if 
they  have  once  acquired  the  habit,  will  do  great  damage  by  killing 
poultry.  Prevention  is  the  only  sure  way  of  handling  them.  The 
rat  probably  ranks  first  as  an  enemy,  killing  a  great  number  of 
young  and  growing  chicks  each  year.  Concrete  floors  and  ruus  pro- 
tected by  fine-mesh  wire  are  the  best  means  of  keeping  them  away. 

Weasels  and  skunks  also  delight  in  killing  birds  and  robbing 
nests  wherever  they  find  them,  the  weasel  preying  on  growing 
chicks  on  the  range  during  the  day.  Traps  and  the  shotgun  are 
here  the  best  preventives.  Poison,  if  judiciously  handled,  is  one 
of  the  best  modes  of  annihilating  all  four-legged  enemies. 

Crows  and  some  varieties  of  hawks  carry  off  both  young  and 
adult  birds.  The  crow  is  particularly  adept  in  stealing  young 
chicks.  He  usually  alights  on  some  tall  pole  or  post  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  chicken  yard  before  swooping  down  for  his  prey.  One  of 
the  best  and  surest  ways  of  catching  him  is  to  place  small  steel 


REVIEW  513 

traps  on  the  tops  of  some  of  the  tallest  poles  in  the  vicinity,  and 
he  will  soon  be  a  captive.  When  killed  and  hung  up  in  the  centre 
of  the  plant,  he  serves  as  a  warning  to  keep  others  away. 

Coops  should  be  securely  locked  against  a  chance  sneak  thief; 
and,  in  case  of  systematic  theft,  the  shotgun,  combined  with  a 
good  burglar  alarm,  gives  the  surest  relief.  A  good  dog  is  a  most 
valuable  asset  on  the  poultry  plant.  He  can  be  trained  not 
only  to  watch  the  yards  by  night,  but  to  protect  the  birds  during 
the  day. 

Occasionally  cats  and  dogs  get  into  the  habit  of  killing  birds, 
in  which  case  the  only  sure  remedy  is  to  kill  the  offenders. 

REVIEW. 

1.  What  is  fundamental  to  a  practical  knowledge  of  poultry  diseases? 

2.  Under  what  conditions  is  it  desirable  to  treat  diseased  poultry? 

3.  When  is  it  not  desirable  to  treat  diseased  poultry? 

4.  Discuss  prevention  as  compared  with  curing. 

5.  Give  three  factors  essential  in  maintaining  a  healthy  flock. 

6.  Define  the  word  hygiene  as  used  in  this  chapter. 

7.  What  three  practices  are  essential  to  insure  clean  houses? 

8.  Give  the  composition  of  a  complete  disinfecting  solution,  and  tell  of  its 

effects. 

9.  Discuss  the  effects  of  sunlight  and  of  moisture  in  their  relation  to  a  sani- 

tary and  hygienic  house. 

10.  Discuss  clean  feeding. 

11.  What  is  the  best  practice  to  guarantee  clean  yards? 

12.  Describe  the  external  appearances  of  sickness,  associated  with  many 

disorders. 

13.  Give  external  symptoms  of  roup;  tuberculosis;  chicken  pox;  gapes. 

14.  Outline  method  of  making  a  post-mortem  examination. 

15.  Name  five  common  poultry  medicines;  state  method  of  use  and  effect. 

16.  Name  four  common  external  parasites  of  poultry. 

17.  Describe  the  effects  of  body  lice. 

18.  Describe  a  good  method  of  spraying  fowls  for  lice.    What  is  used? 

19.  Give  the  composition  of  a  reliable,  homemade  powder  for  destroying  lice. 

20.  Describe  the  chicken  mite  and  his  manner  of  attack. 

21.  Tell  how  to  keep  down  the  ravages  of  mites. 

22.  What  is  meant  by  scaly  legs?    How  can  the  trouble  be  cured? 

23.  Are  mosquitoes  ever  injurious  to  poultry?    What  are  the  effects? 

24.  Describe  and  give  method  of  combating  two  common  intestinal  parasites 

of  poultry. 

25.  Tell  how  to  control  the  gapeworm. 

26.  Name  common  diseases  of  the  digestive  system. 

27.  Give  a  list  of  diseases  of  the  hen's  reproductive  organs. 

28.  What  diseases  affect  the  respiratory  system? 

29.  When  is  it  desirable  to  practise  poultry  surgery? 

33 


514  DISEASES,  PARASITES,  AND  ENEMIES 

30.  Describe  the  procedure  in  treating  cuts  and  wounds. 

31.  What  is  bumble  foot?    Give  its  cause. 

32.  How  would  you  treat  a  frozen  comb? 

33.  Mention  predaceous  enemies  of  poultry,  and  tell  how  to  control  each. 

References. — Poultry  Diseases  and  their  Treatment,  by  Pearl,  Surface, 
and  Curtis,  Maine  Bulletin.  Fowl  Typhoid,  by  Cooper  Curtice,  Rhode  Island 
Bulletin  87.  Tapeworm  Disease  of  Fowls,  by  Gage  and  Opperman,  Maryland 
Bulletin  139.  Tuberculosis  in  Fowls,  by  A.  R.  Ward,  California  Bulletin  161. 
Common  Diseases  of  Fowls,  their  Control  and  Treatment,  by  F.  D.  Chester, 
Delaware  Bulletin  47.  Chicken  Pox  or  Sore  Head  in  Poultry,  by  C.  A.  Gary, 
Alabama  Bulletin  136.  Diseases  of  Chickens,  by  H.  J.  Milks,  Louisiana  Bulle- 
tin 108.  Lice  and  Mites  of  Poultry,  by  Nathan  Banks,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology Circular  92.  Tuberculosis,  Fowl  Cholera,  Chicken  Pox,  and  Roup, 
California  Report,  1903.  Asthenia  (growing  light  in  fowls),  by  Chas.  F.  Daw- 
son,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Report  15.  Some  Common  Disinfec- 
tants, by  M.  Dorset,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  345.  Gapes  in  Poultry,  by  H. 
Garman,  Kentucky  Bulletin  70.  Causes  of  Death  in  Young  Chickens,  by 
C.  K.  Graham,  Connecticut  Bulletin  44.  How  to  Destroy  Rats,  by  D.  E. 
Lantz,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  369.  Disinfection  and  Commercial  Disinfec- 
tants, by  Ravenall  and  Smith,  Wisconsin  Bulletin  156.  Infectious  Diseases 
arrionjl  Poultry,  by  D.  E.  Salmon,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bulletin  8. 
Healthy  Poultry,  in  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  305.  Lice  on  Poultry,  in  U.  S. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  435.  Fowl  Cholera,  by  A.  R.  Ward,  California  Bulletin 
156.  Fowl  Cholera,  by  P.  B.  Hadley,  Rhode  Island  Bulletin  144.  Avian 
Coccidiosis,  by  P.  B.  Hadley,  Rhode  Island  Bulletin.  The  Chicken  Mite, 
Mississippi  Bulletin  78.  Tuberculosis,  by  E.  F.  Pemot,  Oregon  Bulletin  64. 
Diseases  of  Chickens,  by  E.  F.  Pemot,  Oregon  Reading  Course  Bulletin  4. 
The  Common  Chicken  Mite,  by  H.  C.  Pierce,  Iowa  Press  Bulletin  19. 


•df> 


FIG.   217. — Fowl  with  points  named. 

0.  Beak.  9.  Saddle  feathers. 

1.  Single  comb.  10.  Sickles. 

2.  Face.  11.  Lower  sickles. 

3.  Wattles.  12.  Tail  coverts. 

4.  Ear  lobes.  13.  Main  tail  coverts. 

5.  Hackle.  14.  Wing  bow. 

6.  Breast.  15.  Wing  coverts. 

7.  Back.  16.  Secondaries. 

8.  Saddle.  17.  Primaries. 


18.  Flight  coverts. 

19.  Fluff. 

20.  Body. 

21.  Thigh. 

22.  Knee-joint. 

23.  Shanks. 

24.  Spur. 

25.  Toes. 


515 


APPENDIX. 

MISCELLANEOUS  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Poultry  Experiments,  by  Pearl  and  Surface,  Maine  Bulletins  117,  130,  144, 
157,  165  and  179. 

Poultry,  by  G.  Allman,  Department  of  Agriculture  Western  Australia, 
Bulletin  23. 

Poultry  Raising,  by  W.  E.  Vaplon,  Colorado  Bulletin  164. 

Poultry  Experiments,  by  T.  I.  Mairs,  Pennsylvania  Bulletin  87. 

Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm,  by  D.  E.  Salmon,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  141. 

Care  and  Management  of  Poultry,  by  Sheppers  and  Dynes,  North  Dakota 
Bulletin  78. 

Poultry,  by  C.  E.  Brown,  Minnesota  Bulletin  119. 

The  Hen's  Place  on  the  Farm,  by  Oscar  Erf,  Kansas  Bulletin  150. 

The  Poultry  Industry  in  Maryland,  by  C.  L.  Opperman,  Maryland 
Bulletin  138. 

Poultry  in  Pennsylvania,  by  T.  E.  Orr,  Department  of  Agriculture  of 
Pennsylvania,  Bulletin  143. 

Farm  Poultry,  by  W.  S.  Jacobs,  Arkansas  Bulletin  99. 

Farm  Poultry,  by  Lloyd  and  Elser,  Ohio  Circular  118. 

Farm  Poultry  Management,  by  James  E.  Rice,  New  York  Department  of 
Agriculture  Circular  11. 

Poultry  Raising,  by  J.  G.  Halpin,  Michigan  Bulletin  245. 

Farm  Poultry,  by  J.  S.  Jeffrey,  North  Carolina  Bulletin  195. 

Poultry  Management,  by  G.  A.  Bell,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  287. 

Poultry  Keeping  on  the  Farm,  by  F.  S.  Cooley,  Montana  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin 3. 

Profitable  Poultry,  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  107. 

Farm  Poultry,  W.  R.  Graham,  Ontario  Bulletin  151. 

Methods  of  Poultry  Management,  by  Raymond  Pearl,  U.  S.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  357. 

Poultry  Management,  by  Stewart  and  Atwood,  West  Virginia  Bulletin  115. 

Poultry  as  Food,  by  Helen  Atwater,  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  182. 


516 


APPENDIX  517 

ADDRESSES  OF  COLLEGES,  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS, ETC. 

(These  devote  time  to  educational    and  experi'mental  work  in  poultry  husbandry;  in 
most  cases  bulletins  or  other  publications  are  issued  freely.) 

Alabama,  Experiment  Station,  Auburn. 
Alabama,  Tuskegee  Station,  Tuskegee. 
Arizona,  Experiment  Station,  Tucson. 
Arkansas,  Experiment  Station,  Fayetteville. 
California,  State  College,  Berkeley. 
Canada,  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph. 
Colorado,  Experiment  Station,  Fort  Collins. 
Connecticut,  Agricultural  College,  Storrs. 
Delaware,  Experiment  Station,  Newark. 
Georgia,  Experiment  Station,  Athens. 
'Illinois,  Experiment  Station,  Urbana. 
Indiana,  Purdue  University,  Lafayette. 
Iowa,  Agricultural  College,  Ames. 
Kansas,  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan. 
Kansas,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Topeka. 
Kentucky,  Experiment  Station,  Lexington. 
Louisiana,  State  Station,  Baton  Rouge. 

Maine,  Agricultural  College  and  Experiment  Station,  Orono. 
Maine,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Augusta. 
Maryland,  Agricultural  College,  College  Park: 
Massachusetts,  Agricultural  College,  Amherst. 
Massachusetts,  Board  of  Agriculture,  Boston. 
Michigan,  Agricultural  College,  East  Lansing. 
Minnesota,  University,  St.  Paul. 

Mississippi,  Agricultural  College,  Agricultural  College. 
Missouri,  Experiment  Station,  Columbia. 
Missouri,  Poultry  Station,  Mountain  Grove. 
Montana,  Experiment  Station,  Bozeman. 
Nebraska,  Experiment  Station,  Lincoln. 
Nevada,  Experiment  Station,  Reno. 
New  Jersey,  Agricultural  College,  New  Brunswick. 
New  South  Wales,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Victoria. 
New  York,  Cornell  Station,  Ithaca. 
New  Zealand,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wellington. 
North  Carolina,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Raleigh. 
North  Carolina,  College  Station,  West  Raleigh. 
North  Dakota,  Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  College. 
Ohio,  Agricultural  College,  Columbus. 
Ohio,  Experiment  Station,  Wooster. 
Oklahoma,  Experiment  Station,  Stillwater. 
Oregon,  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania,  Agricultural  College,  State  College. 
Pennsylvania,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Harrisburg. 
Rhode  Island,  Agricultural  College,  Kingston. 
South  Carolina,  Experiment  Station,  Clemson  College. 
South  Dakota,  Agricultural  College,  Brookings. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Utah,  Experiment  Station,  Logan. 
Virginia,  Experiment  Station,  Blacksburg. 
Washington,  Experiment  Station,  Pullman. 
West  Virginia,  Experiment  Station,  Morgantown. 
Wisconsin,  Agricultural  College,  Madison. 


518 


NUTRIENTS  IN  FODDERS  AND  FEED  STUFFS 


TABLE  XVIII. — Pounds  of  Dry  Matter  and  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Different 
Quantities  of  Fodders  and  Feed  Stuffs. 


1  I        I 

if 

IS              3             II 

5     i      1      il 

1J2 

5    1     1    il           >^ 

J     b      1      11    i 

§1 

•2         ^ll          .             —  * 

m              >>                o               *«J3            *»                     *>,£. 

5       0         £        U         £ 

m 

5        Q         £        U          fe            £"" 

Alfalfa,  green,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.3. 

Brewer's  grains,  dry,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  3.0. 

1       0.2       0.04       0.07     0.006 

231 

1       0.92     0.16       0.37     0.05            1200 

2          .4          .07          .15       .01 

462 

2        1.84       .32          .73        .10            2400 

3          .6          .11          .22       .02 

693 

3       2.76       .48       1.10       .15           3600 

4          .8         .15          .29       .02 

924 

4       3.68       .64        1.47       .20            4800 

5       1.0         .19         .37       .03 

1155 

5       4.60       .80       1.83       .25           6000 

Alfalfa  hay  or  meal  (best)  nutritive  ratio  1:3.3. 

Brewer's  grains,  wet,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  3.2. 

1         .89       .14         .37       .02 

1033 

1         .24       .04         .09       .01              330 

2       1.78       .27         .74       .03 

2066 

2         .49       .08         .19       .03              660 

3       2.67       .41       1.11       .05 

3099 

3          .73       .12          .28       .04              990 

4       3.56       .55        1.48       .06 

4132 

4          .97       .16          .37        .06            1320 

5       4.45       .69       1.85       .08 

5165 

5       1.21       .20         .46       .07            1650 

Barley,  green,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  5.8. 

Buttermilk,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  1.4. 

1          .28       .02          .10 

242 

1         .10       .04         .04        .      .            179 

2          .56       .04          .20       .01 

484 

2         .19       .08         .09       .01              358 

3          .84       .06          .31        .01 

726 

3          .29       .12          .13        .01               537 

4        1.12       .08          .41        .02 

968 

4          .39       .16          .18       .02              716 

5       1.40       .10         .51       .02 

1210 

5         .48       .20         .22       .02              895 

Barley  meal,  sifted,  nutritive  ratio  1  ; 
H       .46       .06         .33       .01 
1          .93       .11          .66       .02 
2       1.96       .23       1.31       .04 
3       2.79       .34       1.97       .06 
4       3.72       .45       2.62       .07 
5       4.65       .56       3.28       .09 
Barley,  rolled,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  6.9. 
1         .9         .09         .60       .02 

6.2. 
705 
1410 
2820 
4230 
5640 
10059 

1370 

Cheese,  cottage,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  0.3. 
1         .28       .21          .04       .01              507 
2         .56       .42         .09       .02            1014 
3         .84       .63         .13       .03            1521 
4        1.12        .84          .17        .04            2028 
5       1.40     1.05         .22       .05           2535 
Clover  seeds,  bur,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.8. 
Yi        .46        .08          .19       .02              610 

2       1.8         .19       1.19       .04 
3       2.7          .28        1.79       .07 
4       3.6          .37       2.38       .09 

2740 
4110 
5480 

1         .93       .17         .39       .04            1221 
2       1.87       .34       1.77       .09           2442 
3       2.80       .52       1.16       .13            3663 

5       4.5         .47       2.98       .11 

6850 

4       3.74       .68        1.55        .17            4884 

Beans,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.9. 

5       4.67       .86       1.93       .21            6105 

1          .87       .17          .49       .01 

1272 

Clover,  green,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.9. 

2       1.75       .35         .97       .02 

2544 

1          .23        .03          .09        ...            -  256 

3       2.62       .52       1.46       .03 

3816 

2         .46       .07         .18       .01              512 

4       3.49       .69       1.94       .04 

5088 

3         .69       .10         .27       .01              768 

5       4.73       .87       2.43       .05 

6360 

4          .92       .14          .36        .02            1024 

Blood,  dried,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  0.11. 

5       1.15       .17         .45       .02            1280 

M        .45       .36          .03       .005 

746 

Corn,  cracked,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  8.5. 

1          .90       .72          .06       .01 

1493 

1         .89       .08         .63       .04            1524 

2       1.81      1.44          .12       .02 

2986 

2       1.79       .17       1.27       .08           3048 

3       2.72     2.16         .18       .03 

4479 

3       2.68       .26       1.91       .13           4572 

4       3.62     2.88         .24       .04 

5972 

4       3.48       .34       2.55       .17            6096 

5       4.53     3.60         .30       .05 

7475 

5       4.47        .43       3.19       .21            7620 

Bone,  poultry 
H        .46       .14       015 

324 

Cracklings,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.4. 
Yi       .47       .23        23            1364 

1          .92       .28        03 

648 

1          .94       ^k8        ....     1.46            2728 

2       1.84       .56       06 

1296 

2       1.88s    -86        .  .    .       .92            5456 

3       2.76       .84        09 
4       3.68     1.12        12 
5       4.60     1.40        15 
Bran,  rice,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  5.9. 

1944 
2592 
3240 

3       2.82     1.29"       ..'..      1.38            8184 
4       3.76      1.72   x^---      1-84          10912 
5       4.70     2.  15'      2.30          13640 
Feed  flour,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  8. 

1         .89       .10         .42       .10 

1424 

1         .88       .09         .67       .01            1465 

2       1.78       .20         .84       .20 

2848 

2       1.76       .17        1.25       .02            2930 

3       2.67       .30       1.26       .30 

4272 

3       2.64       .26       2.02       .03            4395 

4       3.56       .40       1.68       .40 

5696 

4       3.52       .35       2.70       .04            5860 

6       4.45       .50       2.00       .50 
Bran,  wheat,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  4.3. 

7120 

5       4.40       .44       3.37       .05            7325 
Kale,  green,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  11.5. 

1         .88       .11         .42       .02 

1070 

1         .15       .03         .10        .  ..              263 

2       1.76       .22         .84       .05 

2140 

2          .30       .05          .20       .01              526 

3       2.64       .34       1.26       .07 

3210 

3          .45       .08          .30       .01               789 

4       3.53       .45       1.69       .10 

4280 

4          .60       .10           40        02            1052 

5       4.41       .56       2.11       .12 

5350 

5         .75       .13         .50       !02            1315 

APPENDIX 


519 


=°     3      1     it            11 

*     1     i     jl 

11 

aj             >>                               u  «*        «j                   0  w 

.fl              >-                 2                 csJ           C8                      3~ 

3        O          fi          O          fci              fa 

A      %      °       *•£     ~s 
3     o     £      o       £ 

l~ 

Lettuce,  green,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  6. 

Meat  scrap,   first   quality,   nutritive 

ratio 

1       0.05     0.01       0.03        ...                97 

1  :0.27. 

2         .11       .02         .06        ...              194 

4       3.78     2.16       0.28     0.14 

5288 

3         .16       .04         .09     0.01              291 

5       4.73     2.70         .35       .17 

6610 

4          .21        .05          .12        .01               388 

Milk,  dried,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  0.4. 

5         .27       .06         .15       .02              485 

Yt       .45       .26         .08 

650 

Malva,  green,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  7.3 

1         .89       .51         .16       .01 

1300 

1          .20       .06          .10       .01               302 

2       1.78     1.02         .32       .02 

2600 

2         .41       .13         .19       .02              604 

3       2.67     1.54          .48       .04 

3900 

3         .61       .19         .29       .03              906 

4       3.56     2.05          .64       .05 

5200 

4          .81        .26          .39        .04             1208 

5       4.45     2.56         .80       .06 

6500 

5       1.02        .32          .49        .05            1510 

Milk,  skim,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  1.8. 

Meal,     coconut     oil     cake,    nutritive    ratio 

1          .09       .03          .05 

268 

1  :  3.9. 

2         .18       .06         .11 

536 

1/2       -43       .08         .21       .05              750 

3         .28       .10         .16 

804 

1          .86       .16         .42       .10            1500 

4         .37       .13         .21 

1072 

2       1.72       .33         .85       .20           3000 

5         .47       .16         .27       .005 

1340 

3       2.58       .49        1.27        .30            4500 

Millet,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.2. 

4       3.44       .66        1.70       .40            6000 

Yt       -46       .10         .18       .02 

586 

5       4.30       .82       2.12        .50            7500 

1         .92       .20         .35       .04 

1173 

Meal,  corn,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  11.5. 

2       1.84       .39         .69       .08 

2346 

1          .88        .06          .66        .03            1266 

3       2.77       .59       1.04       .11 

3519 

2        1.76        .13        1.32        .07            2532 

4       3.69       .78       1.39       .15 

4692 

3       2.64        .19        1.99        .10            3798 

5       4.61       .98       1.73       .19 

5865 

4       3.52        .26       2.65        .13            5064 

Mixed  feed,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  5.6. 

5       4.40       .32       3.31        .17            6330 

1         .89       .10         .47       .03 

1186 

Meal,  cottonseed  oil  cake,  nutritive  ratio 

2       1.79       .19         .95       .06 

2372 

1  :  1.0. 

3       2.68       .29        1.42       .09 

3558 

Y3       .45       .21         .08       .06              381 

4       3.58       .38       1.89       .12 

4744 

1         .90       .41          .15       .11              762 

5       4.47       .48       2.37       .15 

5930 

2        1.80        .82          .31        .22             1524 

Oats,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  6.2. 

3       2.70     1.23          .46       .33            2286 

1         .89       .09         .47       .04 

1042 

4       3.60     1.64          .62        .44            3048 

2       1.78       .18         .95       .08 

2084 

5       4.50     2.05          .77        .55            3610 

3       2.67       .28       1.42       .13 

3126 

Meal,  -gluten,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.9. 

4       3.56       .37       1.89       .17 

4168 

Yz       -46       .13         .22       .07              938 

5       4.45       .46       2.37       .21 

5210 

1          .92        .26          .43        .14            1876 

Peas,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.7. 

2       1.84        .52          .87        .28            3752 

y,       .45       .10         .26 

335 

3       2.75        .77        1.30       .42            5628 

1          .90       .19          .51 

670 

4       3.67      1.03        1.73        .56            7504 

2        1.80       .38        1.02 

1340 

5       4.59      1.29       2.16       .70            9380 

3       2.70       .57        1.53 

2010 

Meal,  linseed  oil  (n.p.)  nutritive  ratio  1  :  2.0. 

4       3.60       .76       2.05        ... 

2680 

Yt        .45        .13          .19        .03              722 

5       4.50       .95       2.56       .03 

3350 

1          .89        .26          .38       .07            1444 
2       1.78       .52         .77       .13            2888 

Rice,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  12.8. 
1          .88       .05          .68 

1378 

3       2.67        .78        1.15        .20            4332 

2       1  75       .11        1.35 

2756 

4       3.56     1.04       1.54       .26            5772 

3       2.63       .16       2.03       .01 

4134 

5       4.45     1.30        1.92       .33            7206 

4       3.51        .21        2.70       .01 

5512 

Meal,  soy  bean,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  0.9. 

5       4.38       .26       3.38       .02 

6890 

H        .45        .20          .12        .03              719 
1         .90       .40         .23       .07            1439 

Wheat  middlings,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  5 
1          .88       .12          .53       .04 

.1. 
1378 

2       1.80       .80         .45       .13           2878 

2       1  76       .24       1.07       .08 

2756 

3       2.70     1.20          .67        .19            4317 

3       2.64       .37        1.60       .11 

4134 

4       3.60     1.60          .90       -26            5756 

4       3.53       .49       2.13       .15 

5512 

5       4.50     2.00        1.12       .33            7195 

5       4.41        .61        2.57       .19 

6990 

Meat,  fresh,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  0.4. 
Yt         13       .1          01              114 

Wheat,  plump,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  6.9. 
1          .89       .09          .61        .01 

1354 

1          -26        .2          03              228 

2       1  77       .18       1.22       .02 

2708 

2          .53        .4           06              456 

3       2  66        28        1.83       .04 

lore' 

3          79        6          08              684 
4       1.06       .8          11              912 
5       1.32     1.00        14            1140 
Meat   scrap,    first   quality,   nutritive   ratio 

4       3  54       .37       2.44       .05            5416 
5       4.43       .46       3.05       .06           6770 
Wheat,  shrunken,  nutritive  ratio  1  :  4.6. 
1          .92       .13          .57       .02            1386 

1  :  0.27. 
K       -47       .27         .04       .02 
1          .94        .54          .07        .03            1322 
2       1.89     1.08         .14       .07 
3       28.4     1.62         .21       .10           3966 

2       1.83       .26       1.15       .04 
3       2.75       .40        1.72       .05 
4       3.67       .53       2.30       .07 
5       4.58       .66       2.87       .09 

2772 
4158 
5544 
6930 

520  APPENDIX 

TABLE  XIX. — Average  Weight  and  Volume  of  Different  Feed  Stuffs. 

One  qt.         One  Ib. 

weighs       measures 

(pounds),      (quarts). 

Barley  meal 

Barley,  whole 1.5  0.7 

Bone  meal.. 2.0  0.5 

Brewer's  dried  grains 0.6  1.7 

Beef  scrap 

Corn-and-cob  meal 1.4  0.7 

Corn-and-oat  feed .  . ; .  0.7  1.4 

Corn  bran 0.5 

Corn  meal 1.5  0.7 

Corn,  whole 1.7  0.6 

Cottonseed  meal 1.5  0.7 

Distiller's  dried  grains 0.5-0.7         1.0-1.4 

Germ  oil  meal 1.4  0.7 

Gluten  feed 

Gluten  meal 

Hominy  meal 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 0.9 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 1.1  0.9 

Malt  sprouts 0.6  1.7 

Mixed  feed  (bran  and  middlings) 0.6  1.7 

Oat  feed  (variable  mixture) 0.8 

Oat  middlings 1.5  0.7 

Oats,  ground 0.7 

Oats,  whole 

Rye  feed  (bran  and  middlings) 

Rye  meal 1-5  0.7 

Rye,  whole 1.6 

Soy-bean  meal 1.3 

Wheat  bran 0.5  2.0 

Wheat,  ground 1.7  0.6 

Wheat  middlings  (flour) 1.2  0.8 

Wheat  middlings 0.8 

Wheat,  whole 1.9  0.5 

TABLE  XX. — Poultry  Journals. 

(Alphabetically  arranged  by  States,  with  Canadian  papers  at  the  last.) 

Union  Poultry  Journal Fort  Smith,  Ark. 

Poultry  Journal Hay  wood,  Cal. 

Pacific  Poultry  Craft Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

*Poultry  Journal Petaluma,  Cal. 

Pacific  Fanciers'  Monthly San  Jose,  Cal. 

Intermountain  Poultry  Advocate Colorado  Springs,  Col. 

Southern  Fancier Atlanta,  Ga. 

Southern  Pit  Games  (sport)  Blakely,  Ga. 

Western  Poultry  Advocate Lewiston,  Idaho. 

American  Hen  Magazine Chicago,  111. 

*American  Poultry  Journal Chicago,  111. 

Successful  Poultry  Journal Chicago,  111. 

Poultry  Tribune * Mount  Morris,  111. 


*  Specially  recommended. 


POULTRY  JOURNALS  521 

Modern  Poultry Peoria,  HI. 

*Poultry Peotone,  III. 

Poultry  Keeper Quincy,  111. 

*Rdiable  Poultry  Journal Quincy,  111. 

Standard  and  Poultry  World Quincy,  HI. 

Poultry  Post Goshen,  Ind. 

*Inland  Poultry  Journal Indianapolis,  Ind 

Game  Bird Tell  City,  Ind. 

Western  Poultry  Journal Cedar   Rapids,    Iowa. 

Golden  Egg Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Egg  Reporter Waterloo,  Iowa- 
Poultry  Culture Topeka,  Kans. 

Poultry  Ideas Louisville,  Ky. 

Atlantic  Poultry  Journal Baltimore,  Md. 

American  Stock  Keeper Boston,  Mass. 

*Farm  Poultry Boston,  Mass. 

Profitable  Poultry Boston,  Mass. 

Michigan  Poultry  Breeder Battle  Creek,  Mich. 

Poultry  Pointers Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

anal  Barred  Rock  Journal Union  City,  Mich. 

Poultry  Herald St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Useful  Poultry  Journal Trenton,  Mo. 

American  Poultryman Lincoln,  Nebr. 

Poultry  Topics Lincoln,  Xebr. 

Poultry  News Newark,  N.  J. 

*American  Poultry  World Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Poultry  Review Ehnira,  N.  Y. 

Ancona  World Franklinville,  N.  Y. 

Feathered  Warrior  (Game  fowl) Lisle,  N.  Y. 

*American  Poultry  Advocate Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

*Poultry  Husbandry Waterville,  N.  Y. 

Southern  Poultry  Review Charlotte,  N.  Y. 

Poultry  Record Carey,  Ohio. 

City  Farmer Columbus,  Ohio. 

Poultry  Success Springfield,  Ohio. 

Northwestern  Poultry  Journal Salem,  Oreg. 

--one  Poultry  Journal  (quarterly) Beaver  Springs,  Pa. 

Poultry  and  Incubator  News Garrettford,  Pa. 


Poultry  Yard Pho?nixville,  Pa. 

Happf  Hen Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Poultry  and  Farm  Review Pittsburg,  Pa. 


Game  Fowl  Monthly Sayre,  Pa. 

Poultry  Fancier Sellersville,  Pa. 

'Poultry  Item  Sellersville,  Pa. 

Grit  and  Steel Gaffney,  S.  C. 

Progressive  Poultry  Journal Mitchell.  S.  Dak. 

Industrious  Hen Knoxville,  Tenn. 

Southern  Poultry  Magazine Nashville,  Tenn. 

Poultry  Life  of  America Belton,  Tex. 

Southern  Poultry  Journal Dallas,  Tex. 

Southern  Poultryman Dallas,  Tex. 

Texas  Poultry  Journal .Houston,  Tex. 

West  Texas  Journal Loraine,  Tex. 

*Specially  recommended. 


522  APPENDIX 

Pacific  Poultryman Seattle,  Wash. 

Feathered  World Walla  Walla,  WTash. 

Geflugel  Zuchter  (German) Hamburg,  Wis. 

Advance  Poultry  Journal La  Crosse,  Wis. 

National  Partridge  Wyandotte  Journal Milton,  Wis. 

Profitable  Poultry Milton,  Wis. 

Successful  Poultryman  .  .'. , Victoria,  B.  C. 

Fruit  Grower,  Market  and  Poultryman Grimsby,  Ontario. 

Canadian  Poultry  News Owen  Sound,  Ontario. 

Canadian  Poultry  Review , Toronto,  Ontario. 

Poultry  Advocate Toronto,  Ontario. 


INDEX 


Accessibility  of  products,  427 
Accounting,  methods  of,  464 

column  system,  465 
Accounts,  what  they  show,  463 
Acquiring  stock,  methods,  100 
Advertisement,  preparation,  469 

size  of,  470 
Advertising,  467 

profit  from,  470,  473 

ways  of,  467 

what,  468 

when,  468 

where,  468 
Age  of  stock,  101 
Agricultural  Colleges,  list,  517 

train,  2 

Aim  in  breeding,  223 
Air  cell,  location  and  formation,  302 
Albumin,  secretion,  302 

structure,  304 

Alfalfa,  composition  of,  197 
Alleys,  disadvantages  of,  152 

location,  152 

usage,  151 
American  Class,  breeds  of,  71 

Poultry  Association, 
membership,  26 

standard  of  perfection, 
use  of,  67 
value  of,  225 
Anatomy  of  the  fowl,  292 
Ancestry  of  domestic  fowl,  63 

records  of,  283 
Anconas,  mottled,  74 

origin  of,  73 
Animal  feeds,  value  of,  194 

meal,  usage,  195 
Appearance,  value  of,  54 

uniform  flocks,  98 

Appetites,  indication  of  performance,  254 
Appliances,  location  of,  130 

for  feeding,  206 
Aseel  fowl,  64 

description  of,  64 
Ash  defined,  170 

for  chicks,  360 

for  egg  production,  181 


Ash,  function  of,  173 

in  eggs,  305 

in  fowl's  body,  170 

in  grains,  202 

sources  of,  172 
Asiatic  Class,  breeds  of,  71 
Assimilation,  173 

Associations  for  holding  exhibits,  483 
Atavism,  example  of,  240 

defined,  240 

factors  affecting,  241 

kinds  of,  241 
Austria-Hungary,  poultry  in,  39 

B 

Baby  chicks,  443 

chick  boxes,  444 
Balanced  rations  defined,  209 

value  of  same,  209 
Bantams,  types  and  uses,  77 
Barley,  composition  of,  193 

value  and  usage,  191 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  origin  of,  71 
Bedbugs,  510 
Beets,  composition,  200 

usage,  199 

varieties,  199 
Beginning,  manner  of,  61 
Beheading,  413 

Belgium,  poultry  keeping  in,  38 
Belle  of  Jersey,  record,  259 
Bibliography,  miscellaneous,  516 
Bichloride  of  mercury,  use  of,  506 
Birds  compared  with  other  animals,  169 

importance  of  clean,  499 

preparation  for  exhibition,  477 

sale  of,  473 

selection  of,  101 
Blood,  dried,  195 
Blue  Andalusian,  origin  of,  73 
Body  characters, relation  to  functional  activ- 
ity, 242 

composition  of,  170 

lice  on,  507 

Bolts  for  foundation,  127,  128 
Bone,  composition  of,  185,  196,  202 

cutter,  206 

dry  ground,  201 

523 


524 


INDEX 


Bone,  fresh  cut,  201 

value  of  products,  195 
Boning  fowl,  420 
Bracing  corner  fence  posts,  163 
Brahma,  origin  of,  71 
Bran  for  chicks,  359 
Brassiness,  cause  of,  263 
Bread,  usage,  188 
Breed,  adaptation  of,  100 

definition,  69 

shapes,  68 

Breeder,  problems  of,  223 
Breeders,  age  of,  284 

care  during  growth,  289 

feed  for,  286 

selection  of,  282 
Breeding,  aim  in,  223 

art  of,  221 

color  pattern,  260,  262 

complexity  of,  221 

controlling  factors,  226 

demand  for,  99 

effect  of  environment  on,  227 

for  eggs,  rules  for,  252 

for  meat,  258 

from  pullets,  284 

fundamentals  of,  225 

laws  of,  229 

mass  vs.  individual,  281 

objects  of,  245 

principles  of,  221,  225,  245 

records,  454 

science  of,  221 

stock,  management  of,  281,  291 
Breeds,  description  of,  71 

number  of,  66 
Broiler,  breeds  for,  381 

classification  of,  378 

cost  of,  383 

defined,  278 

features  of,  380 

management,  382 

possibilities  of,  27 

prices,  383 

profits,  383 

raising,  377 

seasons,  379 

types,  379 
Broilers,  chapter  on,  376-402 

dressing,  418 

undesirable,  445 

uniformity  of,  382 
Brooder,  colony,  353 

gasoline,  354,  355 

houses,  348,  349 

portable,  352 


Brooder,  preparation  of,  356 

record,  460 

requirements,  356 

systems  of  heating,  365 
Broodiness,  indications  of,  315 

natural  function,  314 
Brooding,  artificial,  348-367 

coops  for,  323 

deaths  in,  363 

natural,  312,  322 

temperature,  357 
Broody  coops,  148,  151 

hen,  care  of,  274 
Broom  corn,  192 
Buckwheat,  composition  of,  193 

value  and  usage,  191 
Buildings,  arrangement  of,  53 

investment  in,  60 
Bulk,  need  of,  210 
Bumble  foot,  504 
Business,  adapting  to  location,  54 

poultry  keeping  as  a,  22 

risks  in,  34 


Cabbage,  composition  of,  200 

value  and  usage,  200 
Caldron,  location  and  usage,  206 
Calomel,  uses,  505 
Candling,  438 

Cannibalism,  prevention  of,  364 
Capacity  of  poultry  houses,  108 
Capital,  adjustment  of,  59 

amount  required,  28 

classification  of,  58 

defined,  58 
Capon,  advantages  of,  390 

and  cockerel  compared,  401 

appearance,  400 

breeds  suited  for,  392 

definition  of,  390 

farming,  centres  of,  19 

marketing,  399 

markets,  392 
Caponizing,  age  for,  393 

instruments,  393 

operation,  395 

practice  of,  400 

preparation  for,  394 

profits  from,  400 

slips,  398 

technique  of,  396-397 

where  to  cut,  395 
Capons,  chapter  on,  376-402 
Carbohydrates,  composition  of,  172 


INDEX 


525 


Carbohydrates  defined,  171 

function  of,  172 

in  feeds,  172 

Card  for  labor  record,  462 
Care  during  molt,  286 
Castor  oil,  uses,  505 
Catechu,  uses,  505 
Cayenne,  uses,  505 
Cell  defined,  294 

Centres  of  poultry  production,  11 
Chalazse,  location  and  function,  304 
Characters,  inherited,. 369 
Charcoal,  value,  212 
Cheapness  vs.  economy,  210 
Chicks,  banding  of,  322 

care  of,  323 

death  of,  363 

early  feeding  of,  373 

feeding,  358,  361 

formation  of,  300,  307 

marking,  322 

parasites  on,  324 

rations  for,  324 

transferring,  357 

weaning,  324 
Chilling  chicks,  363 
Cinders  for  foundation,  126 
Circulating  capital  defined,  58 
Circulatory  system,  distribution  of,  297 
Class  defined,  69 
Classification  of  fowl,  biological,  65 

standard  and  utility,  66 

utility,  78 

Clavicles,  description  of,  294 
Clean  birds,  499 

feeding,  498 

housing,  497 

yards,  499 

Cleaning  poultry  houses,  498 
Cleanliness  as  related  to  health,  271 

how  maintained,  272 

importance  of  spraying,  273 

in  designing  fixtures,  143 

in  the  sitting  coop,  320 
Climate,  proper  conditions  of,  48 
Cloaca,  location  and  function,  297 
Closets,  roosting,  145 
Clover,  composition  of,  197 
Cochin,  origin  of,  72 
Cold,  effect  of,  109 
Collateral  reading,  5 
Colony  brooders,  353 

system  defined,  46 

possibilities  of,  47 
Color,  breeding  for,  261 
harmony  defined,  263 


Color  harmony,  existence  of,  263 

value  when  choosing  stock,  102 
Column  system  in  accounting,  465 
Combs,  frozen,  505 
Commission  merchant,  selling  to,  423 
Communication,  means  of,  43 

need  of,  42 

Community  house,  46 
system  defined,  45 

possibilities  of,  46 
Comparison  judging,  487 

profiting  from,  474 
Composition  of  bird's  body,  169,  170 
Concrete  fence  posts,  162 

floor,  advantages  of,  117 
construction,  108,  117,  118 
use  of,  110 
floors,  131 

foundations,  126-127 
posts,  162 
Conditioning,  478 
Consumer,  selling  to,  423 
Contour  of  land,  49 
Convenience  in  poultry  houses,  106 
Cooling,  417 

in  incubation,  340 
Cooperation  in  Denmark,  38 

value  of,  40 

Cooperative  marketing,  449 
Corn  as  a  food,  179 

composition  of,  193 
function  and  usage,  185 
meal,  composition  of,  193 

usage,  186 

Cornell  rations  for  layers,  219 
Cornish  fowl,  possibilities  of,  93 
Correlation,  body  characters  and  function, 

258 

law  of,  241 

vitality  and  body  characters,  256 
Correspondence  courses,  3 
Cost  of  standard-bred  birds,  98 
Cottonseed  meal,  192 
Cow,  hen  compared  with,  222 
Cramming,  408 

machine,  usage,  408 
Crate  fattening,  404,  405 
Creaminess,  causes  of,  263 
Crop,  location  and  function,  297 

rotation,  159,  160,  372 
Cross-breeding  defined,  246 

object  of,  246 
Crosses,  reciprocal,  250 
Crowding  chicks,  363 

effect  on  vigor,  256 
Crows,  512 


526 


INDEX 


Curtains  for  laying  houses,  120 
Customers'  interests,  426 


Dampness,  bad  effect  of,  48 
Danish  egg  packing  industry,  39 

poultry  house,  38 
Delivery  of  products,  427 
Demand  vs.  supply,  32 
Denmark,  poultry  farming  in,  38 
Depluming  mites,  510 
Dermanyssus  gallinse,  508 
Design  of  houses,  simplicity  of,  111 

to  insure  economy  of  labor,  53 
Details,  importance  of,  273 
Diagnosis  of  disease,  500,  501 
Diary,  463 
Digestibility,  factors  affecting,  174 

ground  grains,  181 
Digestion  coefficient  denned,  174 

experiments,  what  they  show,  176,  177 

relation  of  food  to,  173 
Digestive  system,  organs  of,  296 

tract,  296 

Dimorphism,  sexual,  261 
Disease,  diagnosis,  500,  501 

inheritance  of,  227 

of  poultry,  503 

prevention  of,  497 

transmission  by  water,  499 

treating,  496 

when  to  treat,  496 
Diseases,  496 
Disinfecting  solution,  498 
Dislocating  neck,  410 
Disposition  of  egg  breeds,  79 

of  general-purpose  breeds,  87 

of  meat  breeds,  84 
Distribution  of  poultry,  10 
Doctoring  poultry,  496 
Dominant,  how  to  test  for,  232 

meaning  in  Mendel's  law,  231 
Doors,  119 
Dorking,  origin  of,  73 

possibility  of,  93 
Double  matings,  example  of,  261 

yarding,  advantages  of,  159 

methods  of,  160 
Drainage,  51 

air,  51 

soil,  50 

surface,  50 

undsr  foundation,  126 

Dressed  poultry,  marketing,  444 

score  card  for,  491 


Dressing,  417 

Drinking  vessels,  design,  155 
location,  155 

Dropping  boards,  location  and  design,  146 

Droppings,  care  of,  272 

Dry-mash,  California,  219 
Cornell,  219 

mixer,  location  and  usage,  206 
New  Jersey  State  (summer),  217 
New  Jersey  State  (winter),  216 
possibilities,  213 

Dry  picking,  411,  413,  415 

Duck  raising,  rise  of,  21 

Dust  boxes,  151 

Dusting  material,  152 


Economic  factors,  adjustment  of,  58 
Economy  in  handling  layers,  275 
Educational  associations,  4 

exhibitions,  476 
Egg  breeds  as  sitters,  80 
circles,  450 
classification  of,  78 
composition  of,  196 
description  of  type,  78 
disposition  of,  79 
dry  matter  in,  305 
eating,  cause  of,  279 

prevention  of,  279 
exhibits,  473 
expulsion  of,  302 
farming,  combinations  with,  26 

locations  for,  44 
fertilization  of,  301 
foraging  abilities,  80 
formation  of,  300 
grades  of,  440 
hardiness  of,  80 
maturity  of,  79 
ovens,  Egyptian,  326 
packages,  436 
pail,  287 
parts  of,  302 

passage  down  oviduct,  301 
preservation,  441 

producing  States,  conditions  in,  11 
production,    as    affected    by    physical 
condition,  180 

as  affected  by  temperature,  266 

breeding  for,  252 

controlling  factors  in,  267 

distribution  of,  235 

feeding  for,  176 

from  pure  breeds,  96 


INDEX 


527 


Egg  production,  how  improved,  235,  278 
leading  States  in,  11 
of  meat  breeds,  85 
small  flock,  25 

records,  importance  of,  278 

type  defined,  257 
meaning  of,  71 
scoring  for,  490 
Eggs,  collection,  287,  432 

composition  of,  305 

fertility  of,  306 

for  food,  429 

for  hatching,  effect  of  age,  289 
effect  of  temperature,  288 
keeping,  288 

grading,  432 

hatching,  428 

infertile,  437 

malformed,  causes  of,  305 

market  classification,  433 

number  under  one  hen;  318 

packing,  435 

preventable  losses  in,  437 

prices,  429 

putting  in  incubator.  336 

scoring,  492 

selection,  287,  432 

shipping,  436 

storage  of,  442 

testing  of,  320,  343 

uniformity  from  pure  breeds,  97,  434 

use  of  artificial,  279 

value  for  feeding,  197 

yields,  amount  of,  278 
Eggshell,  composition  and  function,  303 
Egyptian  egg  ovens,  326 
Embryo,  development    of,     199,    307,    308, 
309,  438 

location  of,  302 

Employment,  poultry  keeping  as  an,  22 
Enemies,  512 

England,  poultry  farming  in,  35 
English  classes,  breeds  comprising,  73 
Environment,  effect  on  breeding,  227 

effect  on  egg  production,  104,  268 

for  young  stock,  369 
Epiblast  defined,  307 
Epsom  salts,  505 
Equipment,  amount  of,  60 

choice  of,  60 

for  feeding,  204 
Evaporation  in  incubation,  341 
Examination,  post-mortem,  502 
Exercise,  effect  of  insufficient,  256 

during  winter,  271 

for  chicks,  361 


Exercise,  how  induced,  108 

importance  in  breeding,  180,  228 
Exhibiting,  473 

care  at  show,  482 
Exhibition,  arrangement  of,  485 

development  of,  474 

for  pleasure,  473 

preparing  for,  477 

training  for,  477 

type  of,  475 

Exclusive  poultry  farming  defined,  26 
Experience,  value  of,  58 
Experiment  stations,  list  of,  517 
Extension  teaching  defined,  2 
methods  of,  3 


Factors  affecting  breeding,  226 

bringing  greater  profits,  35 
Fallacies  in  breeding,  264 
Family  use,  poultry  for,  24 
Fancier,  opportunities  of  the,  27 
Fancy  breeds,  classification  of,  94 
purposes  of,  94 

points,  breeding  for,  25 
poultry  keeping  for,  25 

poultry  farming,  location  for,  45 

qualities  defined,  94 
Farm  flock,  frontispiece 
Fat,  amount  in  birds,  171 

appearance  and  prevalence  in  feeds,  17 : 

as  related  to  laying  condition,  180 

defined,  170 

function  of,  172 

uses  of,  in  the  body,  170 
Fattening,  chapter  on,  403-420 

feeding  for,  175 

methods  of,  403 
Feathers,  care  of,  448 

growth  in  embryo,  310 

marketing,  448 

Features  essential  in  poultry  houses,  105 
Fecundity,  inheritance  of,  233 
Feed  for  breeders,  286 

trough,  153 

wagon,  207 

Feed-house  design,  204 
Feeding  appliances,  206 

chicks,  358 

clean,  498 

during  the  winter,  270 

effect  of  heavy,  256 

effect  on  egg  production,  268 

equipment,  204 

importance  of  regularity,  212 


528 


INDEX 


Feeding,  objects  of,175 
practice  of,  204 
principles  of,  169 
records,  459,  461 

standards,  their  practicability,  176 
stuffs,  weight  and  volume,  520 
systems  of,  212 
Feeds,  animal,  194 

as  related  to  product,  178 
for  poultry,  184 
must  carry  variety,  180 
natural,  179 
ready  mixed,  194 
use  of  stimulating,  182 
Females,  number  to  one  male,  285 
Fence  bracing,  163 
height  of,  164 
ideal,  165 

maintenance  of,  167 
material  for,  163 
Fertility,  discussion  of,  306 
in  hatching  eggs,  428 
increase  in,  31 
Figuring  ration,  207 
Fish  scrap,  composition  of,  196 

manufacture,  195 
Fixed  capital  denned,  58 
Fixtures,  location  of,  143 
Flax  seed,  its  use  and  value,  192 
Fleas,  510 
Flock,  fattening,  403 

size  of,  270 

Floors,  construction  of,  117 
ideal  concrete,  131 
space  related  to  capacity,  109 
Food  consumption,  224 

for  egg  production,  176 
for  fattening,  176 
for  growing  stock,  374 
for  growth  and  maintenance,  176 
Foraging  abilities  of  egg  breeds,  80 
of  general-purpose  breeds,  89 
of  meat  breeds,  85 
Foreign  poultry  keeping,  35 
Austria-Hungary,  39 
Belgium,  38 
Denmark,  38 
English,  35 
French,  37 
Ireland,  36 
Italy,  38 
Russia,  39 
Foundation,  laying  out,  124 

types  of  construction,  116 
Fowls,  376 

biological  classification  of,  65 


Fowls,  composition  of  body,  169 

nomenclature  of,  515 

origin  of,  63 

parts  of,  515 

physiological  description  of,  292 
Frame,  manner  of  constructing,  128 
Frames  for  concrete  wall,  126 
Framing  poultry  house  materials,  118 
France,  poultry  farming  in,  37 
Free  range,  158 

French  breeds,  possibilities  of,  76 
Fresh  air,  need  of,  108 
Frizzles,  characteristics  of,  78 
Frozen  combs,  505 
Fryers,  385 
Functional  activity,  242 

effect  in  breeding,  228 

variation,  238 


Gallus  bankiva,  63 
Games,  ancestry  of,  76 
characteristics,  76 
Gametic  defined,  234 
Gapeworm,  511 
Gasoline  brooder,  254 
Gate,  construction  of,  166 

location,  165 

General-purpose  breeds,  classification,  89 
as  foragers,  89 
disposition  of,  87 
hardiness  of,  89 
maturity  of,  87 
sitting  qualities,  88 
type  defined,  86 

Geographic  distribution  of  fowls,  9 
Germ  oil,  187 

Gizzard,  location  and  function,  297 
Glass  windows,  proper  size,  121 
Gluten  feed  defined,  186 

meal  defined,  186,  193 
Glycogen,  composition,  171 
Grading  on  side  hill,  124 

up,  advantages  of,  246 
Grains,  composition  of,  193 

digestibility  of,  181 
Grasses,  value  and  usage,  198 
Gravity  water  supply,  52 
Green  food,  371 

for  breeders,  287 
supplying  in  yards,  160 
Grit  for  chicks,  359 

and  shell  boxes,  design,  156 
usage,  181,  212 
Growing  stock,  chapter  on,  368-375 


INDEX 


529 


Growth,  feeding  for,  175 
how  affected,  369 

H 

Half-monitor  house,  cost  of  materials,  139 
plans,  137 
specifications,  138 
Hamburgs,  distribution  of,  76 
Hardening-off  process,  365 
Hardiness  of  egg  breeds,  80 

of  general-purpose  breeds,  89 
of  meat  breeds,  85 
Harvest  mites,  510 
Hatching,  advantages  of  early,  278 
centralized,  27 
eggs,  collection  of,  287 
keeping,  288 
selection  of,  287 
process  of,  310 
Hay-cutter,  206 
Head,  bones  of,  294 
Health,  importance  of,  101,  271 
Heat,  effect  on  birds,  109 

in  incubator,  337 
Heater,  operation  of,  366 
Heavy  producers,  breeding  from,  252 
Height  of  laying  house,  112 
Hen  compared  with  cow,  169 

consumption  and  production  with,  510 
Hen's  eggs,  composition  of,  196 
Heredity,  benefits  from,  230 
definition,  229 
example  of,  229 
law  of,  229 

Hollow  tile  for  incubator  cellar,  329 
Home  practice,  vilue  of,  6 
Hominy  meal,  composition  of,  193 

manufacture,  187        • 
Hoppers,  advantages  of,  106 
design,  154 
self-feeding,  153 
types  of,  154 
use  of,  130 

Hot-air  incubators,  331 
Houdans,  possibilities  of,  94 
House  construction,  standard-unit,  113 
convenience  in,  106 
development  of,  104 
economy  in,  105 
effect  of  shape  on  cost,  113 
grading  for,  124 
principles  of,  104 
roofing  materials,  122 
sanitation,  110 
design,  features  of,  105 


Houses,  brooder,  348 

feed,  204 

for  growing  stock,  372 

importance  of  cleanliness,  497 

perimeter  of,  113 

preservation  of,  122 

types  of,  111 
Hunterdon   County,    New   Jersey,    a   great 

egg  centre,  16 
Hybridizing  defined,  230,  246 

example  of,  231 
Hygiene,  497 
Hypoblast  defined,  307 


Icing  poultry,  447 

Imagination  as  affecting  breeding,  264 
Impregnation,  effect  of  a  previous,  264 
Improvement,  need  of,  221. 
Inbreeding  defined,  246,  247 

effect  on  vigor,  255 

possibilities  of,  248 

ways  of,  247 
Incubation,  advantages  of  artificial,  313 

advantages  of  natural,  312 

artificial,  326 

cooling  during,  339 

disadvantages  of  natural,  312 

eggs  under  one  hen,  318 

hatching  time,  345 

historical  development,  326 

natural,  312 

period  of  development,  321 

record,  458 

temperature,  338 
regulation,  333 

testing,  344 

turning,  339 
Incubator,  best  place  for,  335 

care  of,  335 

cellar  for,  329 

cellar  plans,  328 

development  of,  327 

filling  egg  chamber,  336 

house,  capacity  of,  330 
interior  arrangement,  330 
location,  331 
plans  of,  328 
requirements  of,  327 
ventilation,  329 

lamp,  335 

moisture  for,  341 

record,  456 

selection  of,  333 

ventilation  of,  340 


530 


INDEX 


Incubators,  mammoth,  332 

types  of,  331 

Infertile  eggs,  advantages  of,  307,  437 
Infertility,  causes  of,  289 
Inheritance  as  affecting  breeding,  226 

definition,  226 

genotype  conpeption  of,  234 

of  disease,  227 

of  fecundity,  233 

statistical  conception  of,  233 
Inherited  characters,  369 
Instruction,  collegiate,  2 

by  correspondence,  3 

demand  for,  1 

diversity  of,  1 

elementary,  2 

need  for,  1 

secondary,  2 

types  of,  2 

Internal  parasites,  510 
Intestinal  worms,  511 
Intestines,  location  and  function,  297 
Inventory  making,  458 

record,  455 
Investment  in  buildings,  60 

in  equipment,  60 

poultry  keeping  as  an,  23 
Ireland,  poultry  farming  in,  36 
Italy,  poultry  farming  in,  38 


Journals,  list  of,  520 
Judges,  selection  of,  485 
Judging,  486 

by  comparison,  487 

by  scoring,  488 

methods  of,  487 

objects  of,  486 

principles  of,  487 
Jungle  fowl,  description  of,  63 

K 

Kaffir  corn,  192 
Key-word  is  system,  62 
Killing,  chapter  on,  403-420 
knife  for,  412 
methods  of,  409 
preparation  for,  409 


Labor,  amount  of,  60 
economy  of,  53 
records,  461 


Labor-saving  devices,  60 
Laboratory  practice,  methods  of,  4 

need  of,  4 

Lady  Cornell,  performance  of,  259 
Land  contour,  49 

form  of  capital,  59 
ownership  vs.  rental,  59 
required,  28 
shape  of,  50,  51 
size  or  area,  50 
Langshan,  origin,  72 
Law  of  atavism,  240 
of  correlation,  241 
of  inheritance,  229 
of  variation,  235 
Lawn  clippings,  197 
Laws  of  breeding,  229 
Lay  bones,  294 
Laying  house,  capacity  of,  108 

doors,  119 

features  of  design,  105 

floors,  117 

foundations,  116 

framing,  118 

height  of,  112 

materials  for,  111 

moisture  in,  107 

multiple-unit,  128 

practical  types,  128 

roofs,  114 

shapes,  112 

size,  110 

standard-unit,  115 

sunlight,  106 

ventilation,  108 

walls  and  partitions,  118 

windows  and  curtains,  120 
rations,  California,  219 

Cornell,  -218 

New  Jersey,  216 
stock,  fall  management,  269 

management  of,  266 

summer  management,  274 

winter  management,  270 
Leading  poultry  States,  10 
Learning  poultry  business,  57 
Levelling  board,  use  of,  124 
Leg  banding,  importance  of,  322,  454 
Leghorns,  origin  of,  73 
performance  of,  81 
Legs,  description  of,  293 
Legumes,  value  and  usage,  198 
Lettuce,  201 
Lice,  body,  507 

Like  begets  like,  meaning  of,  229 
Lime  in  droppings,  449 


INDEX 


531 


Lime  sources  of,  185 

uses  of,  185 
Limitation  of  sex,  243 
Line-breeding,  advantages  of,  248 
chart  for,  249 
defined,  248 
for  eggs,  253 

Linseed  meal,  composition  of,  193 
Litter,  272 

Little  Compton  District,  Rhode  Island,   17 
Live  poultry,  marketing,  443 

scoring,  491 
Liver,  297 

Location,  climatic  conditions,  48 
denned,  41 
effect  on  success,  41 
for  egg  farming,  44 
for  meat  farming,  44 
soil  conditions,  48 

Long  laying  house,  cost  of  material,  134 
material  for,  133 
small  units  for  breeding,  132 
specifications,  132 


M 

Machine,  hen  compared  with,  222 
Mail,  need  of  frequent  service,  43 
Maintenance,  feeding  for,  175 
Malay  fowl,  description  of,  64 
Male,  importance  of,  234 

birds  affecting  production,  307 
Males,  proportion  to  females,  285 
Mammoth  incubators,  332 
Management,  changes  in,  20 
Manure,  handling,  449 
Market  poultry,  types  of,  376 
Marketing,  chapter  on,  422 

cooperation  in,  450 

importance  of  care,  268 

methods  of,  12 
Markets,  422 

course  of  products,  425 

distance  from,  41 

nearness  vs.  price  of  land,  41 

securing,  428 
Mash  for  chicks,  359 
Mass  breeding,  281 
Materials  for  laying  houses,  111 
Mating  season,  care  during,  286 
Matings,  double,  261 

importance  of  special,  281 
Mature  birds,  value  in  breeding,  253 
Maturity  of  egg  breeds,  79 

of  general-purpose  breeds,  87 

meat  breeds,  84 


Meal,  animal,  195,  196 
Meat,  amount  in  ration,  179 
breeds  as  egg  producers,  85 
as  foragers,  85 
as  sitters,  85 
classification  of,  85 
description  of  type,  83 
disposition  of,  84 
hardiness  of,  85 
maturity  of,  84 
farming,  26 

location  for,  44 
returns  from,  26 
necessity  in  the  ration,  179 
production,  breeding  for,  258 
quality,  97 

scrap,  value  and  usage,  194 
Medicines,  506 

Mediterranean  class  breeds,  72 
Mendel's  law,  essence  of,  23 
Menopon  biseriatun?,  507 
Mercantile  exchange,  function,  430 
Meristic  variation,  238 
Mesoblast  defined  307 
Methods  of  judging,  487 
Milk  albumin,  composition,  196 

importance  of,  197 
composition  of,  196 
granulated,  composition  of,  196 

manufacture  and  usage,  197 
Millet  seed,  usage,  192 
Milo  maize,  192 
Mineral  matter  for  laying  hens,  181 

sources  of,  202 
Minerals,  double  function  of,  202 

for  poultry,  201 
Minorcas,  origin,  73 

performance  of,  83 
Mites,  509,  510 
Mixed  feeds,  value  of,  194 
Mixing  board  for  concrete,  127 
Modern  development,  19 
Moisture  in  incubation,  342 

in  the  poultry  house,  107 
Molt  indicative  of  egg  production,  277 
Molting,  care  during,  276 
forcing,  277 

selection  in  reference  to,  253 
Morphological  variation,  236 
Motion  of  embryo,  310 
Multiple-unit  house,  132 

development  of,  113 
material  required,  131 
specifications,  128 
working  plans  for,  129 
Muscular  system,  uses  of,  295 


532 


INDEX 


Muslin  curtains,  frames,  121 

proper  size,  120 

use  of,  108 

weight  cloth,  122 
Mutation  defined,  238 
example,  239 

N 

Nest  construction,  146 
design,  146 
eggs,  use,  279 
location,  148 
materials,  147,  317 
rules  for  making,  317 
special  trap  nests,  148 
types,  147 

New  Jersey  rations  outlined,  215 
Nomenclature  of  fowl,  515 
Noted    centres    of    production,    Hunterdon 

County,  N.  J.,  16 
Little  Compton,  R.  I.,  17 
Petaluma,  Cal.,  12 
South  Shore,  Mass.,  18 
Vineland,  N.  J.,  15 
Notochord  defined,  307 
Nutrients,  classified,  171 
defined,  171 
in  feeding  stuffs,  518 
right  proportion,  208 
sources  of,  184 
sufficient,  207 
uses  of,  in  the  body,  172 
Nutrition  defined,  171 

process  of,  171 
Nutritive  ratio  defined,  208 
example,  209 


O 

Oatmeal,  composition  of,  193 

usage,  188 
Oats,  composition,  193 

sprouted,  usage,  189 

value,  188 
Oil  meal,  192 
Olive  oil,  506 
Onions,  200 

Organic  feeds,  classification,  185 
Organization,    American    Poultry    Associa- 
tion, 26 

breed  associations,  26 

for  education,  4 

growth  of,  20 

in  European  countries,  40 
Organs,  uses  of,  295 


Orientals,  origin,  76 
Orpingtons,  origin,  75 
Out-crossing  defined,  249 

object,  250 

Ovary,  location  and  function,  300 
Oviduct,  location  and  function,  300 
Oyster  shell,  185,  201 


Packages  for  dressed  poultry,  444 
Parasites,  507 

on  young  chicks,  324 
Peas  and  oats,  197 
Pedigree,  value  of,  283 
Pelvic  arch,  294 
Pen  record,  455 
Perches,  construction,  144 

location  and  design,  143 
Personality,  importance  of,  56,  61 
Petaluma,  California,  12,  13,  14 
Phosphate  rock,  composition,  202 

uses  and  sources,  185 

Physiological  organization  of  the  fowl,  294 
Physiology,  292 
Planning  records,  453 
Plans  multiple-unit  house,  129 
Plucking  methods,  413 
Plumping,  417 
Plymouth  Rocks,  89 
Polish  class,  75 
Poor  hatches,  causes,  322 
Pork  scrap,  value,  195,  196 
Portable  laying  house,  materials,  141 
plans,  140 
specifications,  139 
Post-mortem  examinations,  502 
Posts,  bracing,  163 

materials  for,  161 

setting,  162 
Potatoes,  usage,  199 
Potential  energy  defined,  209 
Poultry,  breeds  of,  63 

diseases,  496,  503 

economics,  land,  labor  and  capital,  58 

exhibitions,  475 

farming  defined,  7 

feeds,  184 

fixtures,  143 

house,  standard-unit,  113 

in  cities,  8 

in  the  United  States,  8,  9,  10 

journals,  list,  520 

keeping,  advantages,  28 
disadvantages,  31 
how  to  learn,  57 


INDEX 


533 


Poultry  keeping,  objects  of,  22 

place  in  the  animal  kingdom,  65 

plants,  scoring,  493 

surgery,  504 

systems,  danger  of,  34 

value  of  pure-bred,  252 
Poultryman,  qualifications  of,  57 
Power,  kinds  of,  206 
Practical  application,  value  of,  1 
Prepotency  defined,  242 

how  increased,  243 

importance  in  breeders,  283 
Preservation  of  eggs,  441 

of  fence  posts,  161 

of  fences,  167 

of  houses,  122 
Price  of  products,  426 
Prices,  regulation  of,  430 
Principles  of  breeding,  225 

of  judging,  487 
Prizes,  profit  from,  473 
Problems  of  the  breeder,  223 
Producer  to  consumer,  425 
Production,  amount  of,  33 

as  affected  by  male,  307 

cost  of,  33 

feeding  for,  175 

noted  centres  of,  10 
Productiveness,  effect  on  vigor,  255 
Products  as  influenced  by  foods  fed,  178 

easy  to  market,  29 

exhibition  of,  486 

variety  of,  29 
Profits,  average  yearly,  34 

determined  by,  32,  267 

effects  of  rats  and  mice  upon,  110 

from  adverti.  ing,  475 

from  prizes,  473 

from  sale  of  birds,  475 

how  to  increase,  35 

per  cent  on  investment,  34 
Protection  from  cold,  110 
Protein,  composition  of,  170 

cost  of  a  pound,  211 

defined,  170 

for  chicks,  360 

functions  of,  172 

importance  of,  172 
Protoplasm  defined,  295 
Proventriculus,  297 
Publications,  development  of,  20 
Pullets  as  breeders,  256,  284 

early  producing,  253 
"Pure  bred"  defined,  96 
Pure-bred  birds,  cost  of,  98 
demand  for,  99 


Pure-bred  birds,  efficiency  of,  99 

selling  value,  99,  252 
Pure  breeds,  advantages  of,  96 
value  for  meat,  258 


Qualifications  necessary  for  poultryman,  57 
Quality  of  products,  426 


R 


Range,  369 

Rape,  composition  of,  200 

value,  201 
Rations,  compounding,  207 

defined,  207 

for  chicks,  361 

for  growing  stock,  375 

mixing,  207 

outlined,  215 

storing,  211 

summer  changes  in,  275 
Rats,  protection  against,  110 
Recessive,  meaning  in  Mendel's  law,  231 
Reciprocal  crosses,  250 
Records,  453 

breeding,  454 

brooding,  460,  461 

egg,  278 

feeding,  459 

importance  of,  453 

incubator,  345,  456 

inventory,  455 

labor,  461 

methods  of  keeping,  462 

of  sitting  hens,  320 

pen,  455 

planning  of,  453 

sitting,  458 

young  stock,  461 
Red  mites,  507 
Reference  literature,  5 
Regularity  in  feeding,  212 
Retailer,  selling  to,  423 
Returns,  424 

rapidity  of,  30 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  93 

origin  of,  71 
Rice,  value,  192 

Right-angle  triangle,  USP  of,  125 
Risks  in  the  business,  34 
Roads,  43 
Roaster,  breeds  for,  388 

defined,  386 

dressing,  418 


534 


INDEX 


Roaster,  farming,  South  Shore,  18 
Roasters,  chapter  on,  376-402 

distribution  of,  385 

features  of,  388 

management,  389 

prices,  387 

types,  387 

Roofing  materials,  122 
Roofs,  types,  114 
Roosting  closets,  145 
Root  crops,  200 
Roundworms,  511 
Running  water,  advantages  of,  52 
Russia,  poultry  farming  in,  39 
Rye,  value  and  usage,  191 

S 
Salesman,  422 

responsibility  of,  427 
Salt,  185,  212 
Sanitation,  110,497 
Sarcoptes  mutans,  508 
Scalding,  414 
Scaly  legs,  509 
Score  card,  decimal,  490 

dressed  poultry,  492 
market  poultry,  492 
official,  489 
types  of,  488 
Scoring,  488 

dressed  poultry,  491 

eggs,  492 

poultry  plant,  493 
Scratch  feeding  grains,  214 
Scratching  ration,  Cornell,  219 

New  Jersey,  217 
Segmentation  defined,  307 
Selection  defined,  251 

for  egg  production,  254 

hatching  eggs,  287 

importance  of,  281 

judges,  485 

layers,  275 

live  birds,  101 

pullets  at  maturity,  270 

show  birds,  479 

Selling  value  pure-bred  birds,  99 
Semi-community  system,  46 
Senses,  development  of,  298 
Setting  coops,  cleanliness,  320 

materials  for,  316 
Setting  the  hen,  318 
Sex  adaptation,  30 

control,  250 

limitation,  243 
Sexes,  separation,  324 


Sexual  dimorphism,  261 

Shade,  371 

Shape,  a  breed  characteristic,  68 

of  laying  house,  112 

selection  for,  102 
Shaping,  417 
Shed  roof,  115 
Shell  for  chicks,  359 

membranes,  304 

structure  and  composition,  302 

usage,  212 
Shipping  dressed  poultry,  447 

methods  of,  428 

need  of  facility  in,  43 

to  exhibition,  482 
Show,  arrangement  of,  485 

running,  483 

Side  line,  poultry  keeping  as  a,  26 
Silkies,  77 
Simplicity,  111,  143 
Sitting  hen,  care  of,  319,  322 
selection  of,  317 
when  to  set,  315 

qualities  of  egg  breeds,  80 

of  general-purpose  breeds,  88 
of  the  meat  breeds,  85 

records  of,  458 
Situation  defined,  41 

important  factors  in,  49 
Size,  importance  of  in  breeding,  258 

of  laying  house,  110 

of  stock,  102 
Skeleton,  292 

Skim  milk,  composition,  196 
Skunks,  512 
Slips,  398 
Slope,  best,  52 
Soil  effect  on  color,  264 

effect  on  fertility,  31 

proper  condition  of,  48 

undesirable  types,  49 
Solid  color,  breeding  for,  263 
Somatic  defined,  234 
Sorghum,  192 
South  Shore  roasters,  18 
Spaying,  401 

Spraying  for  cleanliness,  273 
Spring,  for  water  supply,  53 
Sprouted  oats,  advantages,  190 
composition,  191 
manner  of  sprouting,  ISO 
Standard  bred  defined,  94 

poultry,  exhibition  of,  477 

classification  defined,  66 
table  of,  66,  67 

of  excellence,  use  of,  225 


INDEX 


535 


Standard  weights,  table,  70 
Start,  small  beginning,  56 
Starting  time,  61 
Sternum,  294 
Sticking,  410 
Stimulating  feeds,  182 
Stock,  importance  of  good,  61 

method  of  acquiring,  100 

quality  of,  101 

selection  of,  96,  267 
Storage  of  dressed  poultry,  448 

of  eggs,  442 

Substantive  variation,  237 
Suburban  poultry  farming,  24 
Success  and  failure,  causes  of,  96 

best  way  to  achieve,  7,  56,  61 
Succulence  for  chicks,  361. 

need  of,  210 
Sultans,  appearance,  77 
Sunflower  seeds,  192 
Sunlight,  106 
Supply,  427 

vs.  demand,  32 
Surgery,  504 
Swiss  chard,  201 
Symptoms  of  disease,  500 
System,  best  for  beginner,  60 

denned,  295 

the  key  to  success,  62 
Systems  of  feeding,  best,  215 
classified,  212 

of  poultry  farming  classified,  45 


Tapeworm,  512 
Tar,  use  as  a  pain  ,  123 
Taste,  sense  of,  299 
Telephone,  need  of,  43 
Temperature  for  brooding,  257 

for  holding  hatching  eggs,  288 

for  incubation,  337 

fowl's  body,  169 

of  houses,  109 
Testicles,  location,  298 
Testing  eggs,  320,  343 
Thermostat,  use  of,  333 
Tile,  use  under  foundation,  126 
Time  to  start,  61 
Tissue  defined,  295 

kinds  of,  295 
Toe  punching,  454 

manner  of,  322 
Training  for  exhibition,  477 
Transit,  use  of,  124 
Transportation,  facilities  for,  21 


Transportation,  need  of,  42 

Trap-nesting  to    improve  egg  production, 

278 
Trap  nests,  148 

design,  149 
usage,  149 

Trench  for  foundation,  125 
Troughs  for  feeding,  152 
Turning  eggs  in  incubation,  339 
Two-thirds  span  house,  specifications,  135 
Type  defined,  71 

for  egg  production,  257 
of  incubators,  331 
of  laying  houses,  110 


U 


Under  color,  importance  of,  263 
Uniformity  of  eggs,  97 

of  flocks,  98 
Unit  of  protein,  cost  of,  211 

standard  poultry  house,  113 
United  States  census  table,  8 
Utility  classification,  66,  78 

exhibitions,  475 

fancy  combined  with,  25 

quality,  score  card  for,  490 

score  card,  use  of,  491 

types  compared,  88 


Value,  basis  of,  224 
Variation,  causes  of,  239 

functional,  238 

laws  of,  235 

meristic,  238 

morphological,  236 

principles  of,  235 

substantive,  237 

types  of,  236 
Varieties,  number  of,  66 
Variety  defined,  70 

necessity  in  feeding,  180 
Vegetable  cutter,  206 
Vegetables,  composition  of,  198,  200 
Ventilation,  automatic,  108 

in  incubator  cellar,  329,  340 

in  poultry  house,  108 
Vigor,  cause  of  lack  of,  255 

constitutional,  254 

importance  of,  254 

selection  for,  102 

Vineland  District,  New  Jersey,  15 
Vital  question,  profitable  production,  35 
Vitality,  signs  of  high,  256 


536 


INDEX 


Vitality,  signs  of  low,  256 
Vitelline  membrane,  301 
Vitellus  denned,  301 

W 

Walls,  materials  for,  118 
Washing  birds,  479 
Waste  land,  42 

products,  31 
Water,  elevating  for  storage,  53 

for  chicks,  359 

importance  of  fresh,  52 

in  eggs,  184 

in  fowl's  body,  170 

necessity  of,  173,  180 

sources  of,  52,  184 

uses  of,  173 

Water-glass,  use  of,  441 
Weaning  chicks,  324,  368 
Weasels,  512 
Weight,  102 

Weights  of  breeds,  table,  70 
Wet  mash,  213 
Wheat  as  a  poultry  food,  179,  193 

bran,  composition,  193 
manufacture,  187 

flour,  188 


Wheat  middlings,  187,  193 
screening,  188 

Whey,  196 

White  diarrhoea,  364 

White-faced  Black  Spanish,  origin,  73 

Windows,  arrangement,  106 
for  laying  house,  120 

Wings,  292 

Winter  quarters,  269 

Wire,  poultry  fencing,  163 

Working  plans,  half-monitor  house,  137 
long  laying  house,  132 
portable  laying  house,  140 
two-thirds  span  house,  135 

Wyandottes,  71,  91 


Yarding,  double,  159 
Yards  and  yarding,  158 

clean,  499 

cost  of,  159 

crop  rotation  for,  160 

shape  of,  159 

size  of,  158 

vs.  free  range,  158 
Yolk,  304 
Young  stock,  record,  461 


YC 


20370 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


